Publications

In 2019, Sri Lanka introduced two policies that referred to food waste and the need to reduce it. To understand key stakeholders’ readiness in this context, this study analyzed the food waste perceptions of private and public sectors in Colombo (open markets, supermarkets, hotels, restaurants, canteens, food caterers and key authorities). Interviews were carried out with operational managers and public officials, as well as other stakeholders who have roles in food waste redistribution and reuse, such as NGOs and the livestock sector. So far, the food-waste-related policy recommendations lack an operational inter-institutional home which can build on measures, like standards, regulations and incentives. Thus, most food waste reduction initiatives are initiated by NGOs or by the private sector, e.g., by larger hotels and supermarket chains. These entities were ready to lead by example, based on the understanding that urban food waste is an internal (financial) management challenge. Among smaller local entities, food waste was perceived more as an external issue to be handled by the city’s waste collection services. Although perceptions varied between entities generating smaller or larger quantities of food waste, there was general agreement that suboptimal capacities and mechanisms to quantify, monitor and cost food waste generation appeared to be obstacles for in-depth awareness creation and action. There was significant interest in communication platforms for cross-sectoral learning, win/win collaborations with reliable collection (reuse) services that are currently operational, such as those provided by piggeries, as well as surplus redistribution initiatives if food safety and related liabilities can be addressed effectively.

Positioning migrants as quintessential globalisation subjects, this paper reveals how the COVID-19 pandemic has exposed the ambivalent positioning of migration as a pathway for human development. Drawing on interviews with international and domestic labour migrants from Bangladesh, India, Laos and Myanmar working in Laos, Myanmar, China, Singapore and Thailand, the paper explores the vulnerabilities, challenges and opportunities that have come with migration and how these have been reconfigured as the pandemic has progressed, disproportionately heightening migrants’ exposure to the virus and their socioeconomic precarity. Through their personal stories, the paper provides insights into the evolving livelihood pathways of migrant workers during the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, their (changing) views of migration as a route to progress, and tentatively sets out how ruptures caused by the pandemic may lead to a re-thinking of livelihood pathways for such men and women and their families.

This report presents a spatial analysis conducted at global scale to identify areas of high suitability for implementing the Underground Transfer of Floods for Irrigation (UTFI) approach. The study used multiple global spatial datasets, and the related data were arranged under three categories water supply, water demand and water storage to assess global UTFI suitability. Among the river basins with high suitability, the Awash in Ethiopia, Ramganga in India (one of the major tributaries of the Ganges River Basin) and Chao Phraya in Thailand were selected for the economic analysis in this study. The results from this study are intended to provide a first step towards identifying the broad areas (at the river basin or country scale) where more detailed investigation would be worthwhile to ascertain the technical and economic feasibility of UTFI, with greater confidence.

There is increasing recognition of the need to bring about changes across the full spectrum of agricultural practices to ensure that, in future, food production systems are more diverse, sustainable and resilient. In this context, the objectives of irrigation need to be much more ambitious, shifting away from simply maximizing crop yields to maximizing net benefits across a range of uses of irrigation water, including ecosystems and nature-based solutions. One important way to achieve this is by better integrating fisheries into the planning, design, construction, operation and management of irrigation systems. Irrigation a major contributor to the Green Revolution has significantly improved agricultural production worldwide, with consequent benefits for food security, livelihoods and poverty alleviation. Today, irrigated agriculture represents about 21 percent of cultivated land, but contributes approximately 40% of the total global crop production. Many governments continue to invest in irrigation as a cornerstone of food security and rural development. Investments in irrigation often represent a pragmatic form of adaptation to changing climatic conditions. This guide focuses on how to sustainably optimize and broaden the range of benefits from irrigation development - not only economic but also social and environmental benefits. It emphasizes the opportunities that fisheries could provide to increase food production and economic returns, enhance livelihoods and public health outcomes, and maintain key ecosystem services. The guide considers possible trade-offs between irrigation and fisheries, and provides recommendations on how these could be minimized.

South Asiaapos;s heavy reliance on groundwater for irrigated agricultural production supports the livelihoods of tens of millions of smallholder farmers but is being undermined by rampant overexploitation of groundwater. Without major intervention, this is expected to be further exacerbated by growing demand and climate change. Groundwater management, scientific and evidence-based, can make an important contribution to managing unsustainable groundwater use and strengthening the climate resilience of farmers due to groundwaterapos;s unique storage characteristics. This study brings together a set of strategies and solutions to better manage groundwater that cover the augmentation of groundwater recharge through managed aquifer recharge, management of groundwater demand through participatory groundwater management and other methods, and the harnessing synergies of co-dependent sectors. The opportunities, constraints and available evidence for each are analysed and the boundaries, barriers and specificities identified to establish entry points for positive change through policies and implementation programmes.

Data exchange in transboundary waters is fundamental to advance cooperative water management. Nonetheless, the degree to which data are shared is not well understood. To gauge this degree, an assessment framework was developed and applied in 25 international river basins. The framework captures the degree to which a set of data parameters is exchanged among countries. A reasonable proportion of surveyed basins exchange some data, but the breadth of such exchange is often limited, and not regular. This paper highlights where data exchange can be improved and provides guidance on how indicators used in global assessment frameworks can motivate this improvement.

The last decade has witnessed rapid progress in energy cooperation between the countries of the BBIN (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal) sub-region. Cooperation has been bilateral, with each of the countries entering into separate energy development and trade agreement with India, broadly similar to the water sector where national governments engage bilaterally on transboundary cooperation and dispute resolution. A more recent wave of electrical grid interconnections and hydro-energy cooperation has emerged with governments increasingly shifting from bilateral to multilateral energy-sharing agreements. This trend holds considerable potential for regional transboundary water governance. Based on documentary and media analysis along with interviews of key BBIN policy-makers, we identify and examine in this paper four factors for future progress: 1) technical cooperation can be extended to information-sharing for policies and institutions to regulate and manage water resources; 2) India must seize the opportunities and benefits of enhanced regional leadership in the region; 3) simultaneous informal discussion and diplomatic negotiation of water, energy and their nexus can provide BBIN countries the opportunity to highlight potential gains of cooperation and interstate interdependencies; and 4) regional cooperation can give a strong impetus to nations for advancing structural reforms, building institutions and capacity, developing a shared knowledge base, bridging infrastructural gaps, attracting private sector participation, and addressing poverty alleviation goals including job creation.

Urbanisation will be one of the 21st centuryapos;s most transformative trends. By 2050, it will increase from 55% to 68%, more than doubling the urban population in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. Urbanisation has multifarious (positive as well as negative) impacts on the wellbeing of humans and the environment. The 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) form the blueprint to achieve a sustainable future for all. Clean Water and Sanitation is a specific goal (SDG 6) within the suite of 17 interconnected goals. Here we provide an overview of some of the challenges that urbanisation poses in relation to SDG 6, especially in developing economies. Worldwide, several cities are on the verge of water crisis. Water distribution to informal settlements or slums in megacities (e.g. N50% population in the megacities of India) is essentially non-existent and limits access to adequate safe water supply. Besides due to poor sewer connectivity in the emerging economies, there is a heavy reliance on septic tanks, and other on-site sanitation (OSS) system and by 2030, 4.9 billion people are expected to rely on OSS. About 6293% of the urban population in Vietnam, Sri Lanka, the Philippines and Indonesia rely on septic tanks, where septage treatment is rare. Globally, over 80% of wastewater is released to the environment without adequate treatment. About 11% of all irrigated croplands is irrigated with such untreated or poorly treated wastewater. In addition to acute and chronic health effects, this also results in significant pollution of often-limited surface and groundwater resources in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Direct and indirect water reuse plays a key role in global water and food security. Here we offer several suggestions to mitigate water and food insecurity in emerging economies.

Purpose: The need to increase women’s access to extension has been extensively discussed. This paper assesses women’s access to extension services through the Plantwise extension approach as a baseline for future comparison of women’s access through other extension approaches. It also assesses whether crops that men and women farmers seek plant health advice on are similar or not, and attempts to disperse assumptions that continue to be made about what crops women and men grow. Approach: We analysed data from the Plantwise Online Management System for 13 countries using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings: We show that the Plantwise extension approach enables higher levels of women’s access than generally reported for agricultural extension, that the crops that women and men seek extension advice on is not gender dependent, and there are few clear distinctions between their crops of interest. Practical implications: There is limited literature studying gender inclusiveness in different extension approaches. The findings add to the documentation of assessing women’s access to demand-driven extension. Theoretical implications: Plantwise is a new extension approach which needs to be assessed from spatial and temporal perspectives to understand whether demand-driven extension enables increased women’s access over time. Originality/value: Extension service provision is often based on assumptions about what crops are being grown. Small studies have challenged these assumptions, but this large dataset enables us to test these assumptions more thoroughly across 13 countries adding to the weight of evidence against the existence of women’s and men’s crops.

There is a proactive interest in recovering water, nutrients and energy from waste streams with the increase in municipal wastewater volumes and innovations in resource recovery. Based on the synthesis of wastewater data, this study provides insights into the global and regional “potential” of wastewater as water, nutrient and energy sources while acknowledging the limitations of current resource recovery opportunities and promoting efforts to fast-track highefficiency returns. The study estimates suggest that, currently, 380 billion m3 (m3 = 1,000 L) of wastewater are produced annually across the world which is a volume fivefold the volume of water passing through Niagara Falls annually. Wastewater production globally is expected to increase by 24% by 2030 and 51% by 2050 over the current level. Among major nutrients, 16.6 Tg (Tg = million metric ton) of nitrogen are embedded in wastewater produced worldwide annually; phosphorus stands at 3.0 Tg and potassium at 6.3 Tg. The full nutrient recovery from wastewater would offset 13.4% of the global demand for these nutrients in agriculture. Beyond nutrient recovery and economic gains, there are critical environmental benefits, such as minimizing eutrophication. At the energy front, the energy embedded in wastewater would be enough to provide electricity to 158 million households. These estimates and projections are based on the maximum theoretical amounts of water, nutrients and energy that exist in the reported municipal wastewater produced worldwide annually. Supporting resource recovery from wastewater will need a step-wise approach to address a range of constraints to deliver a high rate of return in direct support of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 6, 7 and 12, but also other Goals, including adaptation to climate change and efforts in advancing “netzero” energy processes towards a green economy.

With the objective to provide a basis for regional climate models (RCMs) selection and ensemble generation for climate impact assessments, we perform the first ever analysis of climate projections for Western Nepal from 19 RCMs in the Coordinated Regional Downscaling Experiment for South Asia (CORDEX-SA). Using the climate futures (CF) framework, projected changes in annual total precipitation and average minimum/maximum temperature from the RCMs are classified into 18 CF matrices for two representative concentration pathways (RCPs: 4.5/8.5), three future time frames (20212045/20462070/20712095), three geographic regions (mountains/hills/plains) and three representative CF (low-risk/consensus/ high-risk). Ten plausible CF scenario ensembles were identified to assess future water availability in Karnali basin, the headwaters of the Ganges. Comparison of projections for the three regions with literature shows that spatial disaggregation possible using RCMs is important, as local values are often higher with higher variability than values for South Asia. Characterization of future climate using raw and bias-corrected data shows that RCM projections vary most between mountain and Tarai plains with increasing divergence for higher future and RCPs. Warmer temperatures, prolonged monsoon and sporadic rain events even in drier months are likely across all regions. Highest fluctuations in precipitation are projected for the hills and plains while highest changes in temperature are projected for the mountains. Trends in change in annual average discharge for the scenarios vary across the basin with both precipitation and temperature change influencing the hydrological cycle. CF matrices provide an accessible and simplified basis to systematically generate application-specific plausible climate scenario ensembles from all available RCMs for a rigorous impact assessment.

Groundwater governance has become an intractable policy issue, which has many implications for the living standards and well-being of millions of rural poor in South Asia. Groundwater governance is complex as it is influenced by various hydrogeological, sociopolitical and socioeconomic factors. Unregulated groundwater extraction rates in South Asia have depleted the aquifers causing a raft of socioeconomic, environmental and human health problems. This paper analyzes de facto rights in groundwater markets and other emerging ‘groundwater-sharing institutional arrangements’ in India. Using a multi-dimensional property rights model, the paper decomposes de facto groundwater rights while drawing insights and broad policy lessons. The findings indicate that there is much scope for enhancing the ‘small group groundwater sharing’ governed by social regulatory measures. Moreover, distortionary subsidies for agriculture in general and groundwater development, in particular, have had an adverse impact of the resource use and merit further attention.

Interventions that are robust, cost effective, and scalable are in critical demand throughout South Asia to offset growing water scarcity and avert increasingly frequent water-related disasters. This case study presents two complementary forms of intervention that transform water hazards (floodwater) into a resource (groundwater) to boost agricultural productivity and enhance livelihoods. The first intervention, holiya, is simple and operated by individual farmers at the plot/farm scale to control local flooding in semiarid climates. The second is the underground transfer of floods for irrigation (UTFI) and operates at the village scale to offset seasonal floods from upstream in humid climates. Rapid assessments indicate that holiyas have been established at more than 300 sites across two districts in North Gujarat since the 1990s, extending the crop growing season and improving water quality. UTFI knowledge and experience has grown rapidly since implementation of a pilot trial in western Uttar Pradesh in 2015 and is now embedded within government programs with commitments for modest scaling up. Both approaches can help farmers redress the multiple impacts associated with floods, droughts, and groundwater overexploitation at a range of scales from farm plot to the river basin. The potential for wider uptake across South Asia depends on setting up demonstration sites beyond India and overcoming gaps in technical knowledge and institutional capacity.

IWMI, a managing partner of FISH, conducted an assessment of youth participation in SSF, aquaculture and value chains between November 2017 and May 2018. The assessment was conducted in Africa and the Asia-Pacific, with a particular focus on the FISH focal countries of Egypt, Nigeria, Tanzania and Zambia in Africa and Bangladesh, Cambodia, Myanmar and Solomon Islands in the Asia-Pacific. The objectives of this study were to (i) assess the participation of youth in fisheries and aquaculture, including opportunities and challenges for participation, (ii) understand what WorldFish and key partners (government organizations, nongovernmental organizations [NGOs] and others) are doing in the focal countries in relation to youth participation, and (iii) (based on the former two points) provide potential areas for further research that could support improved youth participation in aquaculture, SSF and value chains. In this report, definitions of SSF and aquaculture are adopted from WorldFish.

The design and diffusion of context-specific technologies is centrally important in the multi-dimensional, complex farming systems in arid and semi-arid regions. This paper uses a mixed-method framework to characterize the complexity and heterogeneity of smallholder farming systems and identifies constraints to and opportunities for sustainable intensification. Specifically, the study: (i) characterized farm household typologies based on the diversity of livelihood assets; (ii) co-designed context- specific interventions through an iterative participatory process; and (iii) ex-ante evaluated such interventions to inform multiple stakeholders. We explored farming system diversity using data from 224 farm households in western Rajasthan, India. Employing multivariate statistical techniques and participatory validation, we identified 7 distinct farm household types. Participatory appraisal with multiple stakeholders revealed heterogeneity across farm household types. For instance, the interest of farmers in integrating perennial fruit trees even among the rainfed farm household types markedly varied: household type 1 preferred the multipurpose forestry tree, khejri which requires low labor inputs; household type 2 preferred market-oriented horticulture production; household type 3 did not opt for perennials but for small ruminants; and household type 4 (dominated by women) opted for small horticulture kitchen gardens. The study demonstrated the utility of a mixed-methods approach that addresses multi-dimensional heterogeneity to generate insights and assist in co-designing locally appropriate technologies across different farm types and agro-ecological regions to achieve sustainable intensification.

Irrigated agriculture and inland fisheries both make important contributions to food security, nutrition, livelihoods and wellbeing. Typically, in modern irrigation systems, these components operate independently. Some practices, commonly associated with water use and intensification of crop production can be in direct conflict with and have adverse effects on fisheries. Food security objectives may be compromised if fish are not considered in the design phases of irrigation systems. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development provides a framework that can serve as a backdrop to help integrate both sectors in policy discussions and optimise their contributions to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Inland fisheries systems do play an important role in supporting many SDG objectives, but these contributions can sometimes be at odds with irrigated agriculture. Using case studies of two globally important river catchments, namely the Lower Mekong and MurrayDarling basins, we highlight the conflicts and opportunities for improved outcomes between irrigated agriculture and inland fisheries. We explore SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) as a path to advance our irrigation systems as a means to benefit both agriculture and inland fisheries, preserving biodiversity and enhancing the economic, environmental and social benefits they both provide to people.

While there is increasing evidence concerning the detrimental effects of expanding rubber plantations on biodiversity and local water balances, their implications on regional hydrology remain uncertain. We studied a mesoscale watershed (100 km2) in the Xishuangbanna prefecture, Yunnan Province, China. The influence of land-cover change on streamflow recorded since 1992 was isolated from that of rainfall variability using cross-simulation matrices produced with the monthly lumped conceptual water balance model GR2M. Our results indicate a statistically significant reduction in wet and dry season streamflow from 1992 to 2002, followed by an insignificant increase until 2006. Analysis of satellite images from 1992, 2002, 2007, and 2010 shows a gradual increase in the areal percentage of rubber tree plantations at the watershed scale. However, there were marked heterogeneities in land conversions (between forest, farmland, grassland, and rubber tree plantations), and in their distribution across elevations and slopes, among the studied periods. Possible effects of this heterogeneity on hydrological processes, controlled mainly by infiltration and evapotranspiration, are discussed in light of the hydrological changes observed over the study period. We suggest pathways to improve the eco-hydrological functionalities of rubber tree plantations, particularly those enhancing dry-season base flow, and recommend how to monitor them.

Hydropower development in the Mekong River Basin is occurring at a rapid, though controversial pace, pitting a variety of stakeholder groups against each other at both intranational scale and international scale, and affecting state relations across scales. In this paper, we explore the narratives surrounding hydropower development in this basin, while referring to the concept of hydrosocial cycles as the central tool in our analysis. These look at the processes of socio-political construction of nature, viewing water as a medium that conveys power, and thus sources of both collaboration and conflict. While the Mekong hydropower narratives do, indeed, attempt to conflate the massive regulation of hydrological systems with large-scale social and economic ambitions, they are also intended to obscure a widespread and systemic effort to control and alienate the region’s waters via engineering at multiple scales.

The objective of this research is to develop a fuzzy-based groundwater sustainability index (FGSI) model to evaluate the sustainability of groundwater system at selected cities in Asian. The new Mamdani type fuzzy-based inference system known as FGSI was developed. It contains five components and twenty-four indicators, which covers five dimensions of sustainability, namely, environmental, social, economic, mutual trust, and institutional. The FGSI model offers a novel combination of indicators, which covers aspects of groundwater quality, quantity, and management. An attempt was made to develop a robust index for estimating the groundwater sustainability. The model was evaluated for selected cities in Asian with different difuzzification methods, and compared with the conventional method. The centroid defuzzification method produced well diversified results compared with other methods, including conventional method. The overall groundwater sustainability of Hyderabad of India was estimated as highly sustainable and, Lahore of Pakistan, Bangkok of Thailand, Ho Chi Minh City of Vietnam and Yangon City of Myanmar were estimated as moderately sustainable. The FGSI model may help to policy and decision makers to provide a reliable and resilient sustainable management system in the cities by identifying the indicators for the improvement.

Water availability for agriculture will become a growing constraint in areas already under environmental and social stress due to population growth, development, and climatic variability. This limits the potential for expanding irrigated areas and for sustainable intensification, and compromises the ability of smallholder farmers to cater to the increased demand for food. This chapter assesses the key global challenges to water availability and how increasing scarcity and competition for water resources are affecting agricultural productivity, especially that of smallholder producers in Asia and Africa. It further analyzes emerging water management practices that can be sustainably adapted to the needs of smallholder farmers. We provide evidence of the economic viability and potential to improve farmers’ income from such solutions. The opportunity for scaling up high-impact solutions is also assessed against available empirical evidence.

This paper develops a conceptual framework with an indicator-based approach to assess Climate-Smart Villages (CSVs) and applies it to case study sites in Lao PDR (Ekxang CSV), Cambodia (Rohal Suong CSV), and Vietnam (Tra Hat CSV) in Southeast Asia. The intensification, extensification, diversification, commercialization, alteration of practices, use of common lands, migration strategies that can augment climate resilience, farm income, assets, and food security are assessed based on a composite index of the strategies and key outcome variables. The study demonstrates a method that can be applied widely for assessing climate-smart agriculture strategies and finding possible entry points for climate-smart interventions. The influence of gender in resource control and livelihood strategies is also discussed. It is also evident that the climate-smart interventions can augment different livelihood strategies of farmers and enhance the developmental and climate resilience outcomes. There is a need to prioritize the possible interventions in each case and implement them with the help of donor agencies, local institutions, and government offices.

Reference evapotranspiration (ETo) is a key factor in determining the amount of water needed for crops, which is crucial to correct irrigation planning. FAO Penman-Monteith (EToPM) is among the most popular method to estimate ETo. Apparently sometimes it is difficult to compute ETo using Penman-Monteith due to challenges on data availability. FAO Penman-Monteith method requires many parameters (solar radiation, air temperature, wind speed and humidity), while Hargreaves-Samani method calculates ETo based on air temperature. Because Central Asia is a data limited region with weather stations unable to provide all required parameters for the PM method, this study aimed to estimate ETo using the Hargreaves and Samani (HS) method in Karshi Steppe, in Kashkadarya province, in southern Uzbekistan, based on data from 2011 to 2017. Reference evapotranspiration calculated by non-modified HS method is underestimated during the summer months. The reason for this underestimation might be higher air temperature and wind speed during these months. Therefore, the HS method in its original form cannot be used in our study area to estimate ETo. Modification of the EToHS, through application of a bias correction factor, had better performance and allowed improving the accuracy of the ETo calculation for this region. The calculated ETo values can inform decision making and management practices regarding water allocation, irrigation scheduling and crop selection in dry land regions of Amudarya river basin and the greater Central Asia area.

South Asiaapos;s groundwater economy stands at the threshold of a revolution in adoption of solar irrigation pumps (SIPs). This has potential to unlock the regionapos;s perverse energy-groundwater nexus. In much of South Asia, the price of energy used in irrigation, the only surrogate for water price, fails to signal the abundance or scarcity of groundwater, resulting in myriad distortions. We analyse these in South Asiaapos;s eight distinct energy-groundwater interaction settings. We then explore SIP promotion policies to ease pressure on scarce groundwater in South Asiaapos;s apos;groundwater depletion zoneapos; and accelerate groundwater irrigation for poverty reduction in its apos;groundwater abundance zoneapos;.

Despite extensive literature on the complex nature of empowerment, current efforts to measure women’s empowerment in the agricultural development sector are largely limited to assessing visible forms of agency. We take a critical look at current efforts to measure women’s empowerment at the individual/household level through standardized tools. We examine the results of a household survey conducted in Nepal using the Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI), which was developed as a monitoring and evaluation tool for the Feed the Future Initiative. Our interpretation of the results is informed by qualitative fieldwork conducted in the same region. In our quantitative analysis, we regress correlates of empowerment identified in the literature, such as age, education, household wealth, income, and household composition, on individual empowerment as measured by the WEAI. While several factors associated with women’s empowerment are significantly associated, household composition and intra-household relationships, which we expected to be essential factors in the local context, appear to be unrelated to the WEAI empowerment score. A measure of critical consciousness tested alongside the WEAI instrument appears instead to be closely associated with these factors. Our qualitative findings reveal that there is a discrepancy between local meanings of empowerment and definitions of empowerment defined in terms of agency. Based on these results, we suggest that improvements in measurement may be possible if approaches that measure power predominantly in terms of agency or decision-making were to include critical consciousness in their framework.

Conducting rigorous evaluations of whether the process of creating new institutions affects their performance of mandated duties presents several challenges. Not only is assignment to process often not random, but when the process of creating new institutions starts, outcomes and other performance-influencing covariates are not measurable because the yet-to-be created institutions are not functioning at baseline. This paper compares the performance of 74 ‘treated’ water user associations (WUAs) in Tajikistan that were created using a longer training process with 67 ‘control’ WUAs that were created using shorter training, to assess the impact of training on WUA performance of mandated duties. First, propensity scores were constructed to estimate the probabilities of being ‘treated’ by treatment status. These results guided the application of the difference-in-difference technique with right-hand side covariates in a context where field measures of outcomes and other performance-influencing covariates were made after the new institutions were created and functioning. The first measures were taken within 1218 months of the new institutions being functional and the second measures were taken 24 months after the first. This choice of methods introduces a bias due to measurement error causing an underestimate of the treatment effects, while controlling for biases due to time-invariant and time-varying unobservables. An alternative method that only compared the differences in outcomes at a single point in time after the new institutions were created would have provided an inaccurate estimate of the effects of the intervention. This is a context in which methods such as synthetic controls are impossible to employ due to the nature of the intervention, other macroeconomic structural changes, and severe data restrictions. The methodology employed here generates evidence that, while biased toward generating an underestimate of effect, can still be useful and informative for policy and management purposes, and for evaluating the impact of process on the functioning of new institutions in transition settings.

This study focuses on Laos, a landlocked nation located in South-East Asia with sub-tropical climate and highly seasonal rainfall distribution. Laos is one of the world’s least developed countries, and currently witnesses an unprecedented level of development that is highly reliant on its natural resources, including groundwater. There is currently very limited data and no nationwide assessment of shallow (lt;30 m) groundwater resources to support sustainable management. This study provides a first step towards addressing this issue by (i) identifying the major aquifer units of the country; (ii) integrating localized data and regional maps into an assessment of the groundwater potential; and (iii) producing quantitative maps of key hydrogeological indicators. Eight aquifer units have been described and evaluated: (i) Basement aquifers, (ii) Volcanic aquifers, (iii) Schists, (iv) Paleozoic sedimentary, (v) Karsts, (vi) Limestones, (vii) Mesozoic sedimentary and (viii) Alluvial sediments. The Mesozoic sandstones and the Alluvial aquifers are the most extensive and productive hydrogeological systems in the country. The Volcanic and Karstic aquifers, although poorly known, might also have important potential. This assessment, along with the maps of quantitative aquifer indicators, provide a significant improvement in both spatial resolution and accuracy compared to previously available information. It will likely support improved management plans and the identification of areas with higher potential for groundwater development.

Underground taming of floods for irrigation (UTFI) is a new approach for mitigating flood impacts through targeted floodwater storage in depleted aquifers for irrigating crops in the dry season. UTFI not only fosters the much desired conjunctive use and management of water resources but also provides the environmental services that are of high socioeconomic value. UTFI interventions are individually established at the local scale (e.g. village pond, check dam) but to achieve more substantial positive benefits at the scale of meso watersheds (10 s of km2) or sub-basins (1001,000 s of km2) in the flood-prone river basins requires area-based implementation. Given the nature and scale required, UTFI needs to be managed at the community level with the help of appropriate institutional arrangements taking into account both the upstream and downstream locations. This paper reviews the existing institutional approaches and proposes an institutional framework that can help to mainstream UTFI management in the context of South Asia. The proposed model is centred on the existing formal institutions and also integrates non-market (participatory) and market (payment for ecosystem services) instruments that can provide winwin strategies for water resource management to downstream and upstream communities.

In Montane Southeast Asia, deforestation and unsuitable combinations of crops and agricultural practices degrade soils at an unprecedented rate. Typically, smallholder farmers gain income from “available” land by replacing fallow or secondary forest by perennial crops. We aimed to understand how these practices increase or reduce soil erosion. Ten land uses were monitored in Northern Laos during the 2015 monsoon, using local farmersapos; fields. Experiments included plots of the conventional system (food crops and fallow), and land uses corresponding to new market opportunities (e.g. commercial tree plantations). Land uses were characterized by measuring plant cover and plant mean height per vegetation layer. Recorded meteorological variables included rainfall intensity, throughfall amount, throughfall kinetic energy (TKE), and raindrop size. Runoff coefficient, soil loss, and the percentage areas of soil surface types (free aggregates and gravel; crusts; macro-faunal, vegetal and pedestal features; plant litter) were derived from observations and measurements in 1-m2 micro-plots. Relationships between these variables were explored with multiple regression analyses. Our results indicate that TKE induces soil crusting and soil loss. By reducing rainfall infiltration, crusted area enhances runoff, which removes and transports soil particles detached by splash over non-crusted areas. TKE is lower under land uses reducing the velocity of raindrops and/or preventing an increase in their size. Optimal vegetation structures combine minimum height of the lowest layer (to reduce drop velocity at ground level) and maximum coverage (to intercept the largest amount of rainfall), as exemplified by broom grass (Thysanolaena latifolia). In contrast, high canopies with large leaves will increase TKE by enlarging raindrops, as exemplified by teak trees (Tectona grandis), unless a protective understorey exists under the trees. Policies that ban the burning of multi-layered vegetation structure under tree plantations should be enforced. Shade-tolerant shrubs and grasses with potential economic return could be promoted as understorey.

After a hiatus through the 1990s and the early part of this century, rising energy demand, new private sector financing options and countries pursuing food security, modernization and economic growth have spurred a new era of large dam development. Currently an estimated 3700 dams are planned or under construction globally (Zarfl et al., [2015] 77, 161170). Many of the challenges faced in the context of the water-energy-food nexus are brought into sharp focus by large dam construction. Dams can safeguard food production, provide an important source of income and relatively cheap electricity, and can have direct and indirect benefits for poor people. Too often, however, they have created significant and poorly mitigated environmental and social costs (WCD, [2000] London: Earthscan Publications Ltd). Adverse impacts on ecosystem services caused by dam construction can have profound implications for the health, resilience and livelihoods of the poor. This article explores the challenges facing decision makers with regards to building resilience and navigating risk within the water-energy-food nexus and dams. It draws from two progressive case studies, one in Africa and one in Asia, to highlight lessons learned from nexus approaches including the need for meaningful participation, transparency in decision making, and valuing ecosystem services. The case studies examined contain relevant lessons for global agreements including the Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Agreement because unlike the Millennium Development Goals, they are expected to address interlinkages and tradeoffs across the nexus. The implications of the increasing trend of public private partnerships to finance, build, and operate hydropower dams is discussed. The article concludes by demonstrating that although mitigating impacts across the nexus and social-ecological resilience presents challenges and requires overcoming complexity, the need to tackle these is greater than ever.

Tremendous development of irrigation since the 1960s combined with unbalanced water resources management led to the destruction of the ecosystems in the delta zone and the gradual desiccation of the Aral Sea, once the fourth largest freshwater lake of the world. Command-and-control based water management in the Aral Sea Basin (ASB) inherited from Soviet times did not create any incentives for investing in improved irrigation infrastructure, adopt water-wise approaches, and thus maintain flows into the Aral Sea. This study examined the potential for market-based water allocation to increase inflows to the Aral Sea while maintaining stable agricultural incomes. We find that a water trading system can improve inflows to the Aral Sea but would require significant compensation for agricultural producers. Agricultural producers can use the compensation payments to cope with reduced water supply by improving irrigation and conveyance efficiencies and by developing alternative rural activities such as livestock grazing, agro-processing, and cultivation of low water consumptive crops. We also find that a water trading system would be more efficient if it includes both trade among irrigation sites and between sites and instream uses.

This Research Report presents the first comprehensive overview of the multiple climate hazard risks, and the proposed key issues and challenges facing the South Asian region. This report suggests methods for mapping such risks and estimating their impacts on people and agriculture in South Asia. Regional, country-wise and sub-national assessment of five climate-related risks floods, droughts, extreme rainfall, extreme temperature and sea-level rise is carried out. The approach involves overlaying climate hazard, sensitivity and adaptive capacity maps, and follows the vulnerability assessment framework of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). A combined index based on hazard, exposure and adaptive capacity is introduced to identify areas susceptible to extreme risk. There is a lack of a systematic and comprehensive risk assessment capturing multiple climate hazards for the entire South Asian region and the need for a common framework for risk assessment. While this approach is well grounded in theories and integration of various spatial data including remote sensing data to derive hazard information, there is a clear need for linking additional elements from the ground at a finer scale among various sectors in developing comprehensive risk assessment information for a disaster risk management plan and promoting risk financing strategies.

Groundwater recharge remains almost totally unknown across the Mekong River Basin, hindering the evaluation of groundwater potential for irrigation. A regional regression model was developed to map groundwater recharge across the Lower Mekong Basin where agricultural water demand is increasing, especially during the dry season. The model was calibrated with baseflow computed with the local-minimum flow separation method applied to streamflow recorded in 65 unregulated sub-catchments since 1951. Our results, in agreement with previous local studies, indicate that spatial variations in groundwater recharge are predominantly controlled by the climate (rainfall and evapotranspiration) while aquifer characteristics seem to play a secondary role at this regional scale. While this analysis suggests large scope for expanding agricultural groundwater use, the map derived from this study provides a simple way to assess the limits of groundwater-fed irrigation development. Further data measurements to capture local variations in hydrogeology will be required to refine the evaluation of recharge rates to support practical implementations.

This article analyzes the internal logic of the upeti system in Indonesian irrigation and brings to light how corruption rules are shaped through complex socio-political relationships reflected in the organizational culture of the irrigation agency. Based on 100 interviews with water sector professionals the article highlights: (1) the importance of social relations in shaping institutionalized corruption, (2) how the upeti system justifies corruption practices as the prevailing social norm, and (3) the need for structural change to eradicate corruption. Illustrating how corruption rules are embedded in project management procedures, with projects highly dependent on donor funding, the article highlights the importance of the issue for international agencies and the need to be more politically grounded in promoting their development agenda.

Regional economic integration has become the dominant development pathway promoted, endorsed, and followed by many developing country governments in South East Asia and globally. Focusing on hydropower development, this article shows how forces of globalization manifested in the Myanmar government’s strategies to promote economic growth are shaping the Salween River basin’s development trajectory. Contesting the general belief that economic development would help the country’s transition to full democracy and achieve peace, it illustrates how hydropower development plans in the basin are closely interlinked with human rights issues. Well known for its long histories of violent conflict involving the Myanmar military and ethnic armed groups in various states, hydropower development in the Salween River is not only linked to the ongoing peace process in Myanmar but could also have direct implications on the actual significance of the process. Despite the signing of nationwide ceasefire agreements in 2012, hydropower dam projects could contribute to and trigger reoccurrences of violent armed conflict. Recognizing this conflict-prone and politically fragile condition as the main characteristics of Salween water governance is essential if we are to strive for sustainable and just development.

Study region : In this study, 33 catchments across the Lower Mekong Basin in Southeast Asia are examined to detect historical changes in their hydrological response via a model-based methodology. Study focus : Intensive development over the past half century across Southeast Asia’s Lower Mekong Basin has inevitably affected natural resources. Large areas have been converted from forests for subsistence and commercial agriculture, and urban development. We implement an innovative approach to screen hydrologic data for detecting impacts of such large-scale changes on hydrological response. In a first step, temporal changes in the rainfall-runoff relationship were assessed using the parsimonious, two-parameter GR2M hydrological model. In a second step, a distribution-free statistical test was applied to detect whether significant changes have occurred in the wet season (high flow) and dry season (low flow) conditions. New hydrological insights for the region : Our results indicate that the majority of catchments (64% of those considered) with sufficiently long data records exhibited no discernable trends in hydrological response. Those catchments that did exhibit significant trends in hydrological response were fairly evenly split between increasing trends (between 21% and 24%) and decreasing trends (between 15% and 12%) with time. There was a lack of evidence that these changes where brought about by shifts in precipitation or potential evapotranspiration; however, catchments exhibiting significant increasing trends in hydrological behavior were found to have different land cover compositions (lower percentage of forest coverage and subsequently higher paddy rice coverage) than those exhibiting significant decreasing trends. The approach presented here provides a potentially valuable screening method to highlight regions for further investigation of improved mechanistic understanding. Without this connection, we might be blind to future hydrological shifts that can have significant impact on development.

Soil erosion supplies large quantities of sediments to rivers of Southeastern Asia. It reduces soil fertility of agro-ecosystems located on hillslopes, and it degrades, downstream, water resource quality and leads to the siltation of reservoirs. An increase in the surface area covered with commercial perennial monocultures such as teak plantations is currently observed at the expanse of traditional slash-andburn cultivation systems in steep montane environments of these regions. The impacts of land-use change on the hydrological response and sediment yields have been investigated in a representative catchment of Laos monitored for 13 years. After the gradual conversion of rice-based shifting cultivation to teak plantation-based systems, overland flow contribution to stream flow increased from 16 to 31% and sediment yield raised from 98 to 609 Mg km-2. This result is explained by the higher kinetic energy of raindrops falling from the canopy, the virtual absence of understorey vegetation cover to dissipate drop energy and the formation of an impermeable surface crust accelerating the formation and concentration of overland flow. The 25-to-50% lower 137Cs activities measured in soils collected under mature teak plantations compared to soils under other land uses illustrate the severity of soil erosion processes occurring in teak plantations.

Runoff generated in the monsoon months in the upstream parts of the Ganges River basin (GRB) contributes substantially to downstream floods, while water shortages in the dry months affect agricultural production in the basin. This paper examines the potential for subsurface storage (SSS) in the Ganges basin to mitigate floods in the downstream areas and increase the availability of water during drier months. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is used to estimate “sub-basin” water availability. The water availability estimated is then compared with the sub-basinwise unmet water demand for agriculture. Hydrological analysis reveals that some of the unmet water demand in the subbasin can be met provided it is possible to capture the runoff in sub-surface storage during the monsoon season (June to September). Some of the groundwater recharge is returned to the stream as baseflow and has the potential to increase dry season river flows. To examine the impacts of groundwater recharge on flood inundation and flows in the dry season (October to May), two groundwater recharge scenarios are tested in the Ramganga sub-basin. Increasing groundwater recharge by 35 and 65 % of the current level would increase the baseflow during the dry season by 1.46 billion m3 (34.5 % of the baseline) and 3.01 billion m3 (71.3 % of the baseline), respectively. Analysis of pumping scenarios indicates that 80 000 to 112 000 ha of additional wheat area can be irrigated in the Ramganga sub-basin by additional SSS without reducing the current baseflow volumes. Augmenting SSS reduces the peak flow and flood inundated areas in Ramganga (by up to 13.0 % for the 65 % scenario compared to the baseline), indicating the effectiveness of SSS in reducing areas inundated under floods in the sub-basin. However, this may not be sufficient to effectively control the flood in the downstream areas of the GRB, such as in the state of Bihar (prone to floods), which receives a total flow of 277 billion m3 from upstream sub-basins.

This paper serves international water con ict resolution efforts by examining the ways that states contest hegemonic transboundary water arrangements. The conceptual framework of dynamic transboundary water interaction that it presents integrates theories about change and counter-hegemony to ascertain coercive, leverage, and liberating mechanisms through which contest and transformation of an arrangement occur. While the mechanisms can be active through sociopolitical processes either of compliance or of contest of the arrangement, most transboundary water interaction is found to contain elements of both. The role of power asymmetry is interpreted through classi cation of intervention strategies that seek to either in uence or challenge the arrangements. Coexisting contest and compliance serve to explain in part the stasis on the Jordan and Ganges rivers (where the non-hegemons have in effect consented to the arrangement), as well as the changes on the Tigris and Mekong rivers, and even more rapid changes on the Amu Darya and Nile rivers (where the non-hegemons have confronted power asymmetry through in uence and challenge). The framework also stresses how transboundary water events that may appear isolated are more accurately read within the many sociopolitical processes and arrangements they are shaped by. By clarifying the typically murky dynamics of interstate relations over transboundary waters, furthermore, the framework exposes a new suite of entry points for hydro-diplomatic initiatives.

Soil erosion delivers an excessive quantity of sediment to rivers of Southeastern Asia. Land use is rapidly changing in this region of the world, and these modifications may further accelerate soil erosion in this area. Although the conversion of forests into cropland has often been investigated, much fewer studies have addressed the replacement of traditional slash-and-burn cultivation systems with commercial perennial monocultures such as teak plantations. The current research investigated the impact of this land use change on the hydrological response and the sediment yields from a representative catchment of Northern Laos (Houay Pano, 0.6 km²) where longterm monitoring (2002-2014) was conducted (http://msec.obs-mip.fr/). The results showed a significant growth in the overland flow contribution to stream flow (from 16 to 31%). Furthermore, sediment yields strongly increased from 98 to 609 Mg km-2. These changes illustrate the severity of soil erosion processes occurring under teak plantations characterized by the virtual absence of understorey vegetation to dissipate raindrop energy, which facilitates the formation of an impermeable surface crust. This counter-intuitive increase of soil erosion generated by afforestation reflects the difficulty to find sustainable production solutions for the local populations of Southeastern Asia. To reduce soil loss under teak plantations, the development of extensive agro-forestry practices could be promoted.

Using groundwater for agricultural production has the potential to build resilience in food insecure regions of the world. Use of groundwater can boost agricultural production, improve rural incomes and strengthen farmers’ ability to withstand climate shocks and water variability. However, for groundwater to contribute to sustainable intensification of agriculture, it is essential to know where to invest in groundwater development and how to sustainably manage groundwater resources. WLE has identified potentially usable groundwater resources in Africa, supported important policy changes to enhance the sustainable use of groundwater in eastern India, and has developed maps and new tools that can be used to implement new policies supporting sustainable use of groundwater.

Springs are the major source of freshwater in many small mountainous watersheds within the Himalayan region. In recent years, their flow rates have diminished, but the reasons for this are not self-evident, and hence this paper reviews the methods to investigate Himalayan springs. The review reveals that chemical and isotope analyses mostly water dating and stable isotope (e.g., d18O) analyses could be an appropriate entry point to commence field investigations, because of their potential to map complex spring pathways, including linkages between aquifers. This should be combined with the building of hydrogeological maps with the available data. Output from desktop analyses, field investigations and hydrogeological maps could then contribute to the establishment of a conceptual model, which could form the basis for a numerical model.

On-site sanitation systems, such as septic tanks and pit latrines, are the predominant feature across rural and urban areas in most developing countries. However, their management is one of the most neglected sanitation challenges. While under the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the set-up of toilet systems received the most attention, business models for the sanitation service chain, including pit desludging, sludge transport, treatment and disposal or resource recovery, are only emerging. Based on the analysis of over 40 fecal sludge management (FSM) cases from Asia, Africa and Latin America, this report shows opportunities as well as bottlenecks that FSM is facing from an institutional and entrepreneurial perspective.

Although the Ganges River Basin (GRB) has abundant water resources, the seasonal monsoon causes a mismatch in water supply and demand, which creates severe water-related challenges for the people living in the basin, the rapidly growing economy and the environment. Addressing these increasing challenges will depend on how people manage the basin’s groundwater resources, on which the reliance will increase further due to limited prospects for additional surface storage development. This report assesses the potential of the Ganges Water Machine (GWM), a concept proposed 40 years ago, to meet the increasing water demand through groundwater, and mitigate the impacts of floods and droughts. The GWM provides additional subsurface storage (SSS) through the accelerated use of groundwater prior to the onset of the monsoon season, and subsequent recharging of this SSS through monsoon surface runoff. It was identified that there is potential to enhance SSS through managed aquifer recharge during the monsoon season, and to use solar energy for groundwater pumping, which is financially more viable than using diesel as practiced in many areas at present. The report further explores the limitations associated with water quality issues for pumping and recharge in the GRB, and discusses other related challenges, including availability of land for recharge structures and people’s willingness to increase the cropping intensity beyond the present level.

By altering evapotranspiration and influencing how water is routed and stored in a basin, natural and agrarian ecosystems affect river flow. To quantify the impact of ecosystems on streamflow in two large river basins in Asia and Africa, simple statistical relationships were calculated, enabling flow characteristics to be ascertained from basic catchment features. This approach allows the impact of specified land-use change on streamflow to be determined. For example, it shows that extending paddy areas in the Mekong River Basin reduces downstream low flows, while conversion of forests to crops increases the magnitude of downstream floods in the Volta River Basin. The approach could assist river basin planners to better account for flow-related ecosystem services.

Reviving the Ganges Water Machine (GWM), coined 40 years ago, is the most opportune solution for mitigating the impacts of recurrent droughts and floods in the Ganges River Basin in South Asia. GWM create subsurface storage (SSS) by pumping more groundwater from the aquifers before the monsoon for irrigation and other uses and recharge it during the monsoon. The present study uses fully processed and physically based numerical models, MODFLOW and SWAT, in a semi-coupled modelling framework to examine the technical feasibility of recharging the SSS. The aquifer was simulated as a two-layer system using hydrogeological and groundwater data, model was calibrated from 1999 to 2005 and validated from 2006 to 2010. It assesses the impacts of gradual increase of SSS in 10 years from the base year 2010 under two scenarios (increased rainfall or controlled pumping and recharge) to meet a potential unmet demand of 1.68 billion cubic meters (Bm3) in the Ramganga sub-basin with an area of 18,668 km2. The results show that 34 m of subsurface storage can be created by groundwater pumping of 0.25 Bm3/year by 2020. Under the controlled pumping and recharge scenario, groundwater recharge and river seepage could increase by 14% (4.214.80 Bm3) and 31% (1.101.44 Bm3), respectively. However, baseflow will decrease by 30% (0.180.12 Bm3) over the same time period. The results also show that recharge increased 44% (4.216.05 Bm3) under an increased rainfall scenario. Simultaneously, river seepage and baseflows would increase 36% (1.101.14 Bm3) and 11% (0.180.20 Bm3), respectively. A well-designed managed aquifer recharge program is required to eliminate the negative impact of river flows in the low flow season.

Composite agricultural systems with permanent maize cultivation in the uplands and irrigated rice in the valleys are very common in mountainous southeast Asia. The soil loss and fertility decline of the upland fields is well documented, but little is known about reallocation of these sediments within the landscape. In this study, a turbidity-based linear mixed model was used to quantify sediment inputs, from surface reservoir irrigation water and from direct overland flow, into a paddy area of 13 ha. Simultaneously, the sediment load exported from the rice fields was determined. Mid-infrared spectroscopy was applied to analyze sediment particle size. Our results showed that per year, 64Mgha-1 of sediments were imported into paddy fields, of which around 75% were delivered by irrigation water and the remainder by direct overland flow during rainfall events. Overland flow contributed one-third of the received sandy fraction, while irrigated sediments were predominantly silty. Overall, rice fields were a net sink for sediments, trapping 28Mgha-1 a-1 or almost half of total sediment inputs. As paddy outflow consisted almost exclusively of silt- and clay-sized material, 24Mgha-1 a-1 of the trapped amount of sediment was estimated to be sandy. Under continued intensive upland maize cultivation, such a sustained input of coarse material could jeopardize paddy soil fertility, puddling capacity and ultimately food security of the inhabitants of these mountainous areas. Preventing direct overland flow from entering the paddy fields, however, could reduce sand inputs by up to 34 %.

While in the international literature water sharing in the Syr Darya Basin per past agreements is widely portrayed as most benefiting Uzbekistan, here the dynamics of water allocation within small transboundary tributaries in Ferghana Province show Uzbekistan as benefiting least. The case study highlights that water allocation for Uzbekistan within the tributaries has decreased over the years. Uzbekistan’s approach to compensate for the reduced allocations by means of other water sources has had large long-term cost implications for irrigated agriculture as well as the irrigation bureaucracy. This article contributes to the international debate on benefit sharing in transboundary rivers. The article highlights that costs should be incorporated into the benefitsharing approach, and therefore the focus on benefit sharing alone is misguiding riparian states. Furthermore, the article raises the need to reevaluate benefits, since perceptions of potential benefits change over time.

In this research we explore the potential of precision surface irrigation to improve irrigation performance under the warabandi system prevalent in the Indus Basin Irrigation System. Data on field dimensions, field slopes along with characteristic soil infiltration properties and outlet discharge were collected through a survey of a sample tertiary unit of Maira Branch Canal, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. The performance of all fields in the tertiary unit was analysed and reported in aggregate, with detailed results of one field presented for illustration. The objective is to determine the optimum field layout, defined as the number of border strips, for the observed field characteristics to maximize performance. The results indicate that performance improvement is relatively easily achievable through changes in field layout within current irrigation services. Estimated application efficiency is sensitive to the selected depth of application, and it is important that a practical depth of application is selected. We recommend a depth of application of 50 mm and show how this is achievable and leads to a low quarter distribution uniformity of 0.750 and an application efficiency of 80 %. We also explore the feasibility of a 10-day warabandi rather than the 7-day warabandi and show that there is no significant change in the performance under a 10-day warabandi.

Reduced river runoff and expected upstream infrastructural developments are both potential threats to irrigation water availability for the downstream countries in Central Asia. Although it has been recurrently mentioned that a reduction in water supply will hamper irrigation in the downstream countries, the magnitude of associated economic losses, economy-wide repercussions on employment rates, and degradation of irrigated lands has not been quantified as yet. A computable general equilibrium model is used to assess the economy-wide consequences of a reduced water supply in Uzbekistana country that encompasses more than half of the entire irrigated croplands in Central Asia. Modeling findings showed that a 1020 % reduction in water supply, as expected in the near future, may reduce the areas to be irrigated by 241,000374,000 hectares and may cause unemployment to a population of 712868,000, resulting in a loss for the national income of 3.64.3 %. A series of technical, financial, and institutional measures, implementable at all levels starting from the farm to the basin scale, are discussed for reducing the expected water risks. The prospects of improving the basin-wide water management governance, increasing water and energy use efficiency, and establishing the necessary legal and institutional frameworks for enhancing the introduction of needed technological and socioeconomic change are argued as options for gaining more regional water security and equity.

The Ganges River basin faces severe water challenges related to a mismatch between supply and demand. Although the basin has abundant surface water and groundwater resources, the seasonal monsoon causes a mismatch between supply and demand as well as flooding. Water availability and flood potential is high during the 34 months (JuneSeptember) of the monsoon season. Yet, the highest demands occur during the 89 months (OctoberMay) of the non-monsoon period. Addressing this mismatch, which is likely to increase with increasing demand, requires substantial additional storage for both flood reduction and improvements in water supply. Due to hydrogeological, environmental, and social constraints, expansion of surface storage in the Ganges River basin is problematic. A range of interventions that focus more on the use of subsurface storage (SSS), and on the acceleration of surfacesubsurface water exchange, has long been known as the Ganges Water Machine (GWM). The approach of the GWM for providing such SSS is through additional pumping and depleting of the groundwater resources prior to the onset of the monsoon season and recharging the SSS through monsoon surface runoff. An important condition for creating such SSS is the degree of unmet water demand. The paper shows that the potential unmet water demand ranging from 59 to 124 Bm3 year-1 exists under two different irrigation water use scenarios: (i) to increase irrigation in the Rabi (NovemberMarch) and hot weather (AprilMay) seasons in India, and the Aman (JulyNovember) and Boro (DecemberMay) seasons in Bangladesh, to the entire irrigable area, and (ii) to provide irrigation to Rabi and the hot weather season in India and the Aman and Boro seasons in Bangladesh to the entire cropped area. However, the potential for realizing the unmet irrigation demand is high only in 7 sub-basins in the northern and eastern parts, is moderate to low in 11 sub-basins in the middle, and has little or no potential in 4 sub-basins in the western part of the Ganges basin. Overall, a revived GWM plan has the potential to meet 4584 Bm3year-1 of unmet water demand.

Deficit irrigation could be considered as one potential option to improve water productivity and obtain some level of assured income under water scarcity and drought conditions in Central Asia. This article investigates water productivity and economic returns to two varieties of potato crop under four different soilmoisture regimes in Uzbekistan. Results suggest that deficit irrigation may not be considered as an option to improve water productivity of potato crop, particularly when the deficit is high. However, deficit irrigation options could be still considered as a viable option to maintain food security and some assured farm income even under extreme drought conditions.

Deficit irrigation could be considered as one potential option to improve water productivity and obtain some level of assured income under water scarcity and drought conditions in Central Asia. This article investigates water productivity and economic returns to two varieties of potato crop under four different soilmoisture regimes in Uzbekistan. Results suggest that deficit irrigation may not be considered as an option to improve water productivity of potato crop, particularly when the deficit is high. However, deficit irrigation options could be still considered as a viable option to maintain food security and some assured farm income even under extreme drought conditions.

Conventional emphasis on basin-wide water management has often resulted in the formation of transboundary water law on the basin or near basin scale. In Central Asia, however, the Syr Darya Basin possesses an abundance of tributary-level cooperative agreements that guide and codify water sharing and management on the sub-basin scale. To understand the volume and nature of this cooperation, this paper compiled and analyzed a set of agreements that apply to small transboundary tributaries (STTs) in the Syr Darya Basin. The paper assembled the largest collection of STT water agreements123 in totaland classified such documents according to a range of criteria including: purpose and objectives, water management issues, and operational mechanisms. Results of this work highlight a rise in sub-basin-scale cooperation in the first decade of the twenty-first century, a time when large-scale cooperation appeared tenuous; a practical orientation to transboundary water management at a small scale; and an abundance of treaties of short time duration. These findings present options related to scale, time duration and focus of transboundary water law that can help inform future treaty development.

The Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 26, 2004 devastated coastal ecosystems across South Asia. Along the coastal regions of South India, increased groundwater levels (GWL), largely caused by saltwater intrusion, infiltration from inundated land, and disturbance of freshwater lenses, were reported. Many agencies allocated funding for restoration and rehabilitation projects. However, to streamline funding allocation efforts, district-level groundwater inundation/recession data would have been a useful tool for planners. Thus, to ensure better preparedness for future disaster relief operations, it is crucial to quantify pre- and post-tsunami groundwater levels across coastal districts in India. Since regional scale GWL field observations are not often available, this study instead used space gravimetry data from NASA’s Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE), along with soil moisture data from the Global Land Data Assimilation Systems (GLDAS), to quantify GWL fluctuations caused by the tsunami. A time-series analysis of equivalent groundwater thickness was developed for February 2004December 2005 and the results indicated a net increase of 274 % in GWLs along coastal regions in Tamil Nadu following the tsunami. The net recharge volume of groundwater due to the tsunami was 16.8 km3, just 15 % lower than the total annual groundwater recharge (19.8 km3) for the state of Tamil Nadu. Additionally, GWLs returned to average within 3 months following the tsunami. The analysis demonstrated the utility of remotely sensed data in predicting and assessing the impacts of natural disasters.

Water scarcity driven by climate change, growing demand, and inefficient management of water and related infrastructure is a serious threat to livelihoods in the Aral Sea Basin (ASB) of Central Asia. In recent decades, downstream water shortages have become increasingly common and inflows into the Aral Sea have become very limited. Meanwhile, water losses are enormous both at conveyance and field levels because of outdated infrastructure and the dominance of highly inefficient basin and furrow irrigation methods. Intensification and modernization of irrigation systems, while requiring investment of scarce capital resources, could thus substantially reduce non-beneficial water consumption and help in coping with increasing water scarcity. This study applies a hydro-economic model that solves for the investment in improved irrigation efficiency across the various irrigation sites in the ASB that delivers the highest economic gains. Improvement of the efficiency of irrigation canals and implementation of field efficiency investments and practices, such as drip irrigation, and alternate dry or short furrow irrigation (for rice), would substantially improve economic outcomes. Conveyance efficiency investments are particularly worthwhile in downstream regions where sandy soils are common and return flows largely feed saline lakes in tail-end depressions. Meanwhile, field-level efficiency should be fully upgraded in all rice-producing regions through the use of drip and alternate wet and dry irrigation, as well as with drip irrigation in the cotton-producing Ferghana Valley of the Syr Darya Basin. The value of these improvements increases with reduced water availability. Implementation of an optimal set of investments could increase basinwide benefits by 20% (from US$ 3.2 to 3.8 billion) under normal water availability and by 40% (from US$ 2.5 to 3.5 billion) under dry conditions (80% of normal supply).

Logframes are fundamental to contemporary development. However, there are ongoing debates about their efficacy. This paper pinpoints the limitations of the logframe approach in a water project in Central Asia. Issues surrounding logframes are identified. These include addressing internal risks; the use of baseline studies for the accuracy of assumptions; the ability to adapt under an inflexible budget; and linking the logframe and contract. Findings show that rigid planning may constrain effective project implementation. Greater flexibility through embedded learning and adaptation, adjustable budgets and meaningful mainstreaming of risks may equip projects to cope with uncertainties to achieve sustainability.

Concerns over climate change and climatic variability are growing in South Asia because of the potential detrimental impacts of these phenomena on livelihoods. Such growing concerns demonstrate a need to assess how farmers simultaneously cope with extreme events and adapt to climatic variability. Based on household surveys of 2660 farm families conducted in Nepal’s Terai, coastal Bangladesh, and the Indian state of Bihar, this paper seeks to (1) explore farmers’ coping strategies under adverse weather events; (2) identify key adaptation measures used by farmers; and (3) explore the policy interventions required to adjust agriculture to climatic variability. The study reveals that migration is the most important coping strategy of the households in Bihar and coastal Bangladesh, while reliance on credit markets is the most important in Terai. Farmers in the areas with higher rainfall variability pursue a higher number of coping strategies compared to farmers in areas with lower rainfall variability. Food available months are also higher in areas with higher rainfall variability. Across all sites, the most frequently mentioned adaptive practices are changing cropping patterns and adoption of resilient crop varieties. A large number of farmers place emphasis on breeding crop varieties that tolerate adverse weather. Governments should implement a number of planned activities to cope with adverse events, with the aim that these activities would be synergistic with adaptation to climate change.

Responding to rainfall variability has always been one of the most critical risks facing farmers. It is also an integral part of the job of water managers, whether it be designing interventions for flood management, improving the reliability of water supply for irrigation or advising on priorities during drought conditions. The conventional tools and approaches employed are no longer sufficient to manage the increasing uncertainty and incidence of extreme climate events, and the consequent effects these have on human vulnerability and food security. To be effective, the technological advances need to be matched with physical, institutional and management innovations that transcend sectors, and place adaptation and responsiveness to variability at the centre of the approach. This chapter examines a number of these challenges and possible solutions at a range of scales, from ‘climate-smart villages’ to national policy, with a focus on Asia and India, in particular.

This chapter explores the interrelationships between economic change and environmental issues, by showing how aspiration, education, and migration are variously connected to a loss of agroecological knowledges for rural young people. It reviews a series of case studies from Vietnam, India, and China on the implications for rural youth of changed aspirations and ecological and economic stress. The economic and cultural pressures of globalization mean young people increasingly aspire for a life outside of agrarian- and natural resource-based livelihoods. A consequence of this change has been the migration of young people to urban centers and a drive for families to invest in education. Thishasfar reaching consequences for communities.Those who stay behind face an increased labor burden, and economic pressures can be aggravated when the promise of improved livelihoods outside is notrealized. The chapter also points to the negative implications of these changed aspirations on the intergenerational transfer of agroecological knowledge. Thus, in relation to issues of environment and development, the chapter considers why this complex set of relationships between aspiration, education, and migration is important in the context of children and young people’s lives.

After introducing the objectives and outcomes of Humidtropics, and some institutional constraints the research program faced, this chapter offers a synthesis of achievements, gaps and challenges of agricultural research for development activities implemented in the Humidtropics Central Mekong Action Area, as well as a discussion of the challenges faced. This chapter provides lessons learned from implementing agricultural research for development in this region, and offers insights and recommendations that could support integrated agricultural systems research in the Mekong region and elsewhere.

After reviewing the main causes and effects of land degradation and erosion in the uplands of mainland Southeast Asia, this chapter presents several case studies of recent land-use changes governed by economic, political and institutional transitions, the expansion of teak and rubber tree plantations in northern Laos and southwest China, respectively, and of monocropping coffee in the Central Highlands of Viet Nam. We explain how these environmental disturbances are altering water and soil resources across different geographic scales, from the agricultural plot to the headwater catchment. Examples of coping strategies combining field trials and participatory approaches are illustrated with several case studies taken from research for development activities conducted in Cambodia, Laos, Viet Nam and the Yunnan Province of China. These activities were part of the CGIAR Research Program on Integrated Systems for the Humid Tropics (Humidtropics) in the Central Mekong Action Area. We propose solutions for sustainable agricultural intensification to diversify income, improve dietary diversity and improve natural resource management. The accomplishment of these objectives requires longterm involvement with ethnic minority communities that have been the particular focus in the target areas. The three-anda-half-year lifespan of Humidtropics in the Mekong region was a short period. It would require extension to maintain the carefully built and nurtured relationships with local implementation partners and local farming communities, and reach its full promise.

Water scarcity due to increasing water demand triggered by population growth and irrigation expansion versus a limited and increasingly variable water supply as a consequence of climate change is presently one of the global challenges. This is exemplified in Uzbekistan, Central Asia, where irrigated agriculture is the primary source of the livelihoods of the rural population that makes more than 60 % of all inhabitants. Yet, socio-economic and ecological challenges keep growing, also due to the inefficient management of water resources. Therefore, options to increase water use efficiency were analyzed while considering the entire supply chain of products including the production, processing, consumption and trade stages and processes. These options were analyzed through an elaborated environmentally extended input-output model. The options examined throughout the entire supply chain included: (i) implementing advanced field-level water saving technologies, (ii) increasing crop diversity through expanding fruits and vegetables production and reducing the area of current dominant crops (cotton and paddy rice in downstream), (iii) fostering the further development of less-water demanding agricultural processing industries, (iv) upgrading production value chains by expanding the production of the commodities with higher values added, (v) reducing production and consumption losses, and (vi) diversifying exports by replacing the current cotton fiber exports with cotton commodities of higher values added. The findings may spur decision-makers to formulating strategic priorities at national level and coordinating water uses considering comprehensively technical, economic and ecological aspects along the entire supply chain, which is a key element of IWRM concepts. However, it is argued that increasing water use efficiency through technological and economic transformation reforms necessitates the empowerment of water users, raising their awareness for, and providing the institutional and market infrastructure, which is in-line with IWRM principles as well.

The concept of ‘Underground Taming of Floods for Irrigation’ (UTFI) is introduced as an approach for co-managing floods and droughts at the river basin scale. UTFI involves strategic recharge of aquifers upstream during periods of high flow, thereby preventing local and downstream flooding, and simultaneously providing additional groundwater for irrigation during the dry season for livelihood improvement. Three key stages in moving UTFI from the concept stage to mainstream implementation are discussed. An analysis of prospects in the Ganges River Basin are revealed from the earliest stage of mapping of suitability at the watershed level through to the latest stages of identifying and setting up the first pilot trial in the Upper Ganges, where a comprehensive evaluation is under way. If UTFI can be verified then there is enormous potential to apply it to address climate change adaptation/mitigation and disaster risk reduction challenges globally.

Surface runoff generated in the monsoon months in the upstream parts of the Ganges River Basin contributes substantially to downstream floods, while water shortages in the dry months affect agricultural production in the basin. This paper examines the parts (sub-basins) of the Ganges that have the potential for augmenting subsurface storage (SSS), increase the availability of water for agriculture and other uses, and mitigate the floods in the downstream areas. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is used to estimate sub-basin-wise water availability. The water availability estimated is then compared with the sub-basin-wise un-met water demand for agriculture. Hy-drological analyses revealed that five sub-basins produced more than 10 billion cubic meters (B m3) of annual surface runoff consistently during the simulation period. In these sub-basins, less than 50 % of the annual surface runoff is sufficient to irrigate all irrigable land in both the Rabi (November to March) and summer (April to May) seasons. Further, for most of the sub-basins, there is sufficient water to meet the un-met water demand, provided that it is possible to capture the surface runoff during the wet season. It is estimated that the average flow to Bihar State from the upstream of the Ganges, a downstream basin location, is 277 121 B m3, which is more than double the rainfall in the state alone. Strong relationships between outflows from the upstream sub-basins and the inflows to Bihar State suggested that flood inundation in the state could be reduced by capturing a portion of the upstream flows during the peak runoff periods.

The Ganges River Basin may have a major pending water crisis. Although the basin has abundant surface water and groundwater resources, the seasonal monsoon causes a mismatch between supply and demand as well as flooding. Water availability and flood potential is high during the 34 months of the monsoon season. Yet, the highest demands occur during the 89 months of the non-monsoon period. Addressing this mismatch requires substantial additional storage for both flood reduction and improvements in water supply. Due to hydrogeological, environmental, and social constraints, expansion of surface storage in the Ganges River Basin is problematic. A range of in- terventions that focus more on the use of subsurface storage (SSS), and on the acceleration of surfacesubsurface water exchange, have long been known as the “Ganges Water Machine”. One approach for providing such SSS is through additional pumping prior to the onset of the monsoon season. An important necessary condition for creating such SSS is the degree of unmet water demand. This paper highlights that an unmet water demand ranging from 59 to 119 Bm3 exists under two different irrigation water use scenarios: (i) to increase Rabi and hot weather season irrigation to the entire irrigable area, and (ii) to provide Rabi and hot weather season irrigation to the entire cropped area. This paper shows that SSS can enhance water supply, and provide benefits for irrigation and other water use sectors. In addition, it can buffer the inherent variability in water supply and mitigate extreme flooding, especially in the downstream parts of the basin. It can also increase river flow during low-flow months via baseflow or enable the re-allocation of irrigation canal water. Importantly, SSS can mitigate the negative effects of both flooding and water scarcity in the same year, which often affects the most vulnerable segments of society women and children, the poor and other disadvantaged social groups.

Hydropower development in the Lower Mekong Basin is occurring at a rapid pace. With partial funding from international financial institutions has come pressure on the riparian governments to ensure that the potential environmental and social impacts of hydropower projects are properly considered. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the primary environmental management tools being proposed to fulfill these obligations. This article highlights some of the challenges that are inherent in applying EIA in the Mekong context through critical analysis of both its conceptual and institutional aspects. The main argument of the article is that while EIA application indicates a certain degree of environmental consideration, it is not necessarily sufficient to ensure good environmental practices. Lending institutions such as the World Bank have identified lack of implementation capacity as the biggest constraint to effective EIAs. Focusing on Laos, we show how EIA application should be equipped with necessary institutional arrangements and a transparent public participation process. This will ultimately require a shift within the region to allow environmental and social issues to be given significant weight.

We explore processes that enable effective policies and practices for managing the links between water, energy, and food. Three case studies are assessed at different scales in the Mekong River basin, Sri Lanka and Zimbabwe. We find that there are considerable opportunities for improving outcomes for sustainable development by finding solutions that accommodate multiple objectives in the nexus. These include making data more publicly available, commissioning independent experts to advise on contested issues, engaging under-represented stakeholders in decision-making, sharing benefits, exploring different perspectives in forums where alternative development options can be tested and engaging decision-makers at different scales.

The construction of the Rogun Dam in the Amu Darya Basin to increase upstream energy generation creates potential trade-offs with existing downstream irrigation, due to the different timing of energy and irrigation water demands. The present analysis, based on a hydro-economic optimization model, shows that cooperative basin-wide maximization of benefits would lead to large increases in upstream hydropower production and only minor changes in downstream irrigation benefits. However, if upstream stations, including Rogun, are managed unilaterally to maximize energy production, hydropower benefits might more than double while irrigation benefits greatly decrease, thereby substantially reducing overall basin benefits.

The importance of water security has gained prominence on the international water agenda, but the focus seems to be directed towards water demand. An essential element of water security is the functioning of public organizations responsible for water supply through direct and indirect security approaches. Despite this, there has been a tendency to overlook the water security strategies of these organizations as well as constraints on their operation. This paper discusses the critical role of water supply in achieving sustainable water security and presents two case studies from Central Asia on the management of water supply for irrigated agriculture. The analysis concludes that existing water supply bureaucracies need to be revitalized to effectively address key challenges in water security.

Donor sponsored projects are often criticized for the tendency to impose standardized institutional and technical solutions in irrigation. Although, this might be the case, a project is based on internal actors, ‘project owners’, who influence solutions and implementation processes. Little attention has been paid to project owners, internal dynamics and how these shape aid projects. In this paper, a water user associations (WUAs) project in Central Asia is explored, which introduced flow regulating and metering devices (hydroposts). It is explored how change within project owners, differences in their interests and absence of a proper knowledge management system within the project influenced the alteration of project objectives, causing failure of the implementation process. The paper concludes that internal dynamics within projects are the main source of project uncertainty and risk. Some recommendations are offered how these risks can be minimized.

Ongoing discussions on water-energy-food nexus generally lack a historical perspective and more rigorous institutional analysis. Scrutinizing a relatively mature benefit sharing approach in the context of transboundary water management, the study shows how such analysis can be implemented to facilitate understanding in an environment of high institutional and resource complexity. Similar to system perspective within nexus, benefit sharing is viewed as a positive sum approach capable of facilitating cooperation among riparian parties by shifting the focus from the quantities of water to benefits derivable from its use and allocation. While shared benefits from use and allocation are logical corollary of the most fundamental principles of international water law, there are still many controversies as to the conditions under which benefit sharing could serve best as an approach. Recently, the approach has been receiving wider attention in the literature and is increasingly applied in various basins to enhance negotiations. However, relatively little attention has been paid to the costs associated with benefit sharing, particularly in the long run. The study provides a number of concerns that have been likely overlooked in the literature and examines the approach in the case of the Ferghana Valley shared by Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan utilizing data for the period from 1917 to 2013. Institutional analysis traces back the origins of property rights of the transboundary infrastructure, shows cooperative activities and fierce negotiations on various governance levels. The research discusses implications of the findings for the nexus debate and unveils at least four types of costs associated with benefit sharing: (1) Costs related to equity of sharing (horizontal and vertical); (2) Costs to the environment; (3) Transaction costs and risks of losing water control; and (4) Costs as a result of likely misuse of issue linkages.

In sub-Saharan Africa, motor pump irrigation is at an earlier stage than in Asia but is growing rapidly in many countries. The focus of both policy and research in Africa to date has been on facilitating supply chains to make pumps available at a reasonable price. In Africa, pump irrigation is mainly based on two sources: shallow groundwater aquifers and small streams and rivers. Both usually have limited and variable yields. We present a case study from Ethiopia where pump irrigation based on small rivers and streams is expanding rapidly, and draw parallels to experiences in Asia and other African countries. We show that while farmers understand the social nature of community-managed irrigation, they share with policymakers a narrow understanding of pump irrigation as being primarily apos;technicalapos;. They perceive pumps as liberating them from the apos;socialapos; limitations of traditional communal irrigation. However, the rapid expansion of pump irrigation is leading to increasing competition and conflict over the limited water resource. We analyse the wider implications for Africa of this blindness to the social dimension of pump irrigation and offer suggestions on future policy and applied research to address the problem before it becomes a widespread crisis.

This paper argues that sequential in-channel reservoirs in the Syrdarya River Basin of Central Asia are not sufficient to meet the needs of both upstream and downstream water users. Some of the consequences of the use of in-channel reservoirs include fresh water discharges into the saline depression and flooding of irrigated land in winter and water shortages in summer, which causes low water productivity. This study examines the feasibility of two alternative management strategies (1) building additional off-channel reservoirs, and (2) managed aquifer recharge (MAR). First, the potential for MAR in the upstream Fergana Valley is estimated through a regional assessment of MAR potential, field-scale pilot experiments, and simulation modeling. Second, the potential for MAR is analyzed for lift canal irrigation areas, which cover 70% of the irrigated highlands and the foothills in the river midstream, with a focus on energy use intensity and water and energy productivity. Third, the potential for building off-channel reservoirs and MAR is compared in the downstream portion of the river. Specifically for the Makhtaral Irrigation Project (MIP), a scenario of shifting from lift canal irrigation and groundwater extraction for drainage purposes is compared with groundwater irrigation and MAR. The MIP, located in the tail-end of the transboundary Dustyk Canal, faces waterlogging and salinity issues because of the shallow water table. The study concludes that transboundary cooperation in transboundary water transfers for MAR may increase the amount of water that could be stored underground. Overall, it is shown that there is a high potential for MAR in the Syrdarya River Basin with benefits at both the state and farm levels.

Mekong hydropower is developing rapidly. Laos is at the forefront of this development. While hydropower development supports the country’s economic growth, many observers have highlighted the potential negative impacts for people’s livelihoods. Taking the Nam Mang 3 hydropower project as a case study, we examine the impacts of hydropower development on farming households of differing livelihood assets and resources, and how they have responded to these impacts. Linking livelihood asset substitution with livelihood outcomes, we examine factors constraining livelihood adaptation and how these shape rural households’ strategies to cope with socioeconomic and environmental impacts from hydropower development. We conclude that while asset substitution generally can improve people’s livelihoods, access to land continues to play an important role in the process of livelihood reconstruction and the shaping of livelihood outcomes.

Increasing water demand due to population growth, irrigation expansion, industrial development, and the need for ecosystem improvement under mounting investment costs for developing new water sources calls for the efficient, equitable and sustainable management of water resources. This is particularly essential in the Aral Sea Basin (ASB) where ineffective water management institutions are the primary reason of intersectoral and inter-state water sharing conflicts and lack of incentives for improving water use efficiency. This study examined market-based water allocation as an alternative option to the traditional administrative allocation to deal with water scarcity issues in the ASB. Potential economic gains of tradable water use rights were analyzed based on a newly constructed integrated hydro-economic river basin management model. The analysis differentiates between inter-catchment and intra-catchment water rights trading. The results show that compared to a baseline with fixed water use rights, inter-catchment water rights trading can increase basin-wide benefits by US$ 373476 million. Under intra-catchment trading, gains are still US$ 259339 million, depending on relative water availability. Gains from trade are larger under drier conditions. However, water rights trading carries a series of transaction costs. We find that in case transaction costs exceed US$ 0.05/m3 of water traded there is no additional economic gain from water rights trading. Enforcement of the rule of law, infrastructural improvements, participation of representatives of key water stakeholders in decision making processes, and mutual trust and cooperative relationships among the riparian countries are suggested as means for reducing transaction costs of water rights trading contracts.

Hydropower development is occurring at a rapid, though controversial, pace in the Mekong. We highlight the role of scientific assessment in shaping the Mekong hydropower debate, taking the strategic environmental assessment of the twelve planned mainstream dams as a case study. While environmental impact assessments are designed as science-based decision-making tools, they have often been criticized in practice as a political means to justify already made development decisions. In this case we demonstrate how the Mekong River Commission, operating in a constrained political environment, has instead used environmental impact assessment as a way of providing political space and opening the discussion on dams to a wider public. The main argument of this paper is that scientific assessment can be politically maneuvered to shape governance alliances at both national and transboundary levels, and to a certain extent democratize decision-making processes.

In the literature on the implementation of national policies there is an assumption that these get implemented uniformly within one country. Here, with a focus on the implementation of national policy on shifting from administrative to hydrological/ hydrographic principles of water management in the Zerafshan Valley and the Ferghana Valley in Uzbekistan, this assumption is questioned. The case study demonstrates that national policies are resisted by lower-level bureaucrats, leading to diverse, even contradictory, outcomes of the same policy. The vested interests of a multiplicity of bureaucracies, the power of individual bureaucrats, and the discretional power given to bureaucracies in interpreting national policy are responsible for the different outcomes. The article calls for more comparative assessments across different regions for a better understanding of policy implementation.

The presentation first guides to the challenges of water management. First are old challenges related poor conditions and physical deterioration of irrigation and drainage systems; while new ones such as the rising number of farming units not aligned with hydraulic boundaries; variety of crops grown therefore diverging irrigation schedules; mismatch between on-farm irrigation system and smaller farming units; and dissolution of former water management units of collective farms. In the next part of the presentation we provide a cross-country comparison of water reforms implemented by international donor community in the region. As we will show most of WUAs are not water users driven, they have been established via big bang campaigns of governments and donors within the borders of former collective farms without taking into account local context of irrigation and farming. We conclude that the major constraints for the consistency and improved performance of water user groups are found in uneven implementation of water reforms and in some countries, reluctance to change within each country, weak legal basis for the responsibilities and water rights of WUAs, sustainability issues connected with water services pricing and inclusion and obligations of water users.

South Asia comes across as amongst the most vulnerable regions to climate change in the Inter-government Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s Fifth Assessment Report released a year ago, and in other similar reports. Climate change in the region is manifested by depleting glaciers, increasing coastal erosion, frequent heat waves, rising sea level, frequent floods and droughts and varying rainfall patterns. It is now evident that South Asia’s climate is already changing and the impacts are already being felt. As a largely agrarian economy, this vulnerability is compounded by the fact that more than 700 million people’s livelihoods depend on agriculture directly influenced by changes in climate. Although South Asia has seen robust economic growth, with the GDP averaging about 6 percent over the past 20 years, the region is still home to 1/4th of the world’s hungry and 40% of the world’s malnourished children and women. As populations continue to rise and the demand for food grows, the question is: how will this increase in demand be met and where will all this food be grown? With stiff competition for land from the non-farm sector, expanding farmlands is not an option. Climate change will further exacerbate the existing pressures on land and water resources. If the second Sustainable Development Goal of ending poverty, achieving food security and promoting sustainable agriculture is to be realised, climate change adaptation and mitigation technologies, practices, services and policies will need to be implemented in earnest. Many recent studies show a probability of 10-40 percent loss in crop production by 2070-2100 on account of rising temperatures and decrease in irrigation water, unless steps are initiated now to increase our adaptive capacity. For example, even with the benefits of carbon fertilization (which could anyway be negatively affected by increase in surface ozone concentration) India stands to lose nearly 4-5 tonnes of wheat with every rise in temperature of 1 degree Celsius. This estimate could be even higher when decrease in irrigation is factored in. Wheat losses could be significant even in the short term, while losses for other crops are uncertain and estimated to be relatively smaller, particularly so for monsoon crops. Similarly, there are studies to show that livestock and fish productivity could also decline. Climate change does offer some opportunities as well. One adaptive measure is to identify regions that would become conducive for certain crops in the changed climate. For example, farmers in the upper regions of Himachal Pradesh in India have taken to growing apples because temperatures in the lower regions became too warm for its growth. The shift in cultivation brought new opportunities and high incomes for these farmers while their counterparts in the south switched to cultivating vegetables. It is clear that per hectare cultivation of food needs to drastically increase to meet growing food demands. While this is a challe

Based on a case study in Ethiopia, this paper shows that while farmers understand the social nature of community-managed irrigation, they share a narrow understanding of pump irrigation with policymakers as being primarily ‘technical’. They perceive pumps as liberating them from the ‘social’ limitations of traditional communal irrigation. However, the rapid expansion of pump irrigation is leading to increasing competition and conflict over limited water resources. We analyze the wider implications for Africa of this lack of visibility of the social dimension of pump irrigation, and offer suggestions for future policy and applied research to address the problem before it becomes a widespread crisis.

Background: Even though Plasmodium vivax has the widest worldwide distribution of the human malaria species and imposes a serious impact on global public health, the investigation of genetic diversity in this species has been limited in comparison to Plasmodium falciparum. Markers of genetic diversity are vital to the evaluation of drug and vaccine efficacy, tracking of P. vivax outbreaks, and assessing geographical differentiation between parasite populations. Methods: The genetic diversity of eight P. vivax populations (n = 543) was investigated by using two microsatellites (MS), m1501 and m3502, chosen because of their seven and eight base-pair (bp) repeat lengths, respectively. These were compared with published data of the same loci from six other P. vivax populations. Results: In total, 1,440 P. vivax samples from 14 countries on three continents were compared. There was highest heterozygosity within Asian populations, where expected heterozygosity (He) was 0.92-0.98, and alleles with a high repeat number were more common. Pairwise FST revealed significant differentiation between most P. vivax populations, with the highest divergence found between Asian and South American populations, yet the majority of the diversity (~89%) was found to exist within rather than between populations. Conclusions: The MS markers used were informative in both global and local P. vivax population comparisons and their seven and eight bp repeat length facilitated population comparison using data from independent studies. A complex spatial pattern of MS polymorphisms among global P. vivax populations was observed which has potential utility in future epidemiological studies of the P. vivax parasite.

Across Africa and Asia water resources are being affected by a complex mixture of social, economic, and environmental factors. These include climate change and population growth, food prices, oil prices, financial disruptions, and political fluctuations. The need to produce more food will have one of the largest impacts on water and will continue to re-shape the patterns of agricultural water use in major food-growing regions. With this increasing demand on water for agriculture, from large-scale irrigation to intensification of rainfed systems, it is becoming increasingly important to ensure that water resources decision-making has access to information that captures the spectrum of water uses, across seasons, and over time. Furthermore, the major sectors that place demands on water and otherwise affect the resource need water-related information to inform their decisions. In this paper we consider two cases where the range of agricultural water management uses have been examined. We examine the methodologies and approaches used, the utility of this information to decision-making in the water and agricultural sectors, and the limitations of the information gathered.

This paper reviews the complex impact of climate change on gender relations and associated vulnerability on the Eastern Gangetic Plains of Nepal and India. Field research has identified that gendered vulnerability to climate change is intricately connected to local and macro level political economic processes. Rather than being a single driver of change, climate is one among several stresses on agriculture, alongside a broader set of non-climatic processes. While these pressures are linked to large scale politicaleconomic processes, the response on the ground is mediated by the local level relations of class and caste, creating stratified patterns of vulnerability. The primary form of gendered vulnerability in the context of agrarian stress emerges from male out-migration, which has affected the distribution of labour and resources. While migration occurs amongst all socio-economic groups, women from marginal farmer and tenant households are most vulnerable. While the causes of migration are only indirectly associated with climate change, migration itself is rendering women who are left behind from marginal households, more vulnerable to ecological shocks such as droughts due to the sporadic flow of income and their reduced capacity for investment in off-farm activities. It is clear that policies and initiatives to address climate change in stratified social formations such as the Eastern Gangetic Plains, will be ineffective without addressing the deeper structural intersections between class, caste and gender.

Notions of benefit sharing play an increasingly important role in shaping the debate around the merits of existing and future hydropower development in the Mekong region. In this paperwe assess how the concept of benefit sharing is articulated and applied in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. We discuss the conceptual strengths and weaknesses of benefit sharing, within the broader context of land and water resources and environmental governance. We argue that while benefit sharing provides an entry point for placing the current debate on hydropower development within the perspective of social justice, better understanding of governance structures and processes is needed. Our primary message is that innovations in policies and programs should not be analyzed in isolation from the wider governance structure, processes, and outcomes. To this end, we are pleased also to introduce this Special Issue of Water Resources and Rural Development, in which several authors analyze current benefit sharing programs in the Mekong region, with a focus on governance, process, and policy implications.

Study region: Increasing demographic pressure and economic development in the Mekong Basin result in greater dependency on river water resources and increased vulnerability to streamflow variations. Study focus: Improved knowledge of flow variability is therefore paramount, especially in remote catchments, rarely gauged, and inhabited by vulnerable populations. We present simple multivariate power-law relationships for estimating streamflow metrics in ungauged areas, from easily obtained catchment characteristics. The relations were derived from weighted least square regression applied to streamflow, climate, soil, geographic, geomorphologic and land-cover characteristics of 65 gauged catchments in the Lower Mekong Basin. Step-wise and best subset regressions were used concurrently to maximize the prediction R-squared computed by leave-one-out cross-validations, thus ensuring parsimonious, yet accurate relationships. New hydrological insights for the region: A combination of 36 explanatory variables chosen among annual rainfall, drainage area, perimeter, elevation, slope, drainage density and latitude is sufficient to predict a range of flow metrics with a prediction R-squared ranging from 84 to 95%. The inclusion of forest or paddy percentage coverage as an additional explanatory variable led to slight improvements in the predictive power of some of the low-flow models (lowest prediction R-squared = 89%). A physical interpretation of the model structure was possible for most of the resulting relationships. Compared to regional regression models developed in other parts of the world, this new set of equations performs reasonably well.

While there has been a regional and international focus on large reservoirs in Central Asia, smaller transboundary reservoirs within the Ferghana Valley have been overlooked. The valley is shared by Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, three riparian countries of the upstream Syr Darya. Located within the valley are many small transboundary tributaries and reservoirs. An analysis of the initial proposals and documented negotiations for four of these reservoirs reveals a changing pattern of benefit sharing. These past approaches call into question the argument that the boundaries set by the Soviets did not matter, as well as the assumption that Moscow as a hegemon planned infrastructure in order to divide and rule Central Asia.

After independence in 1991, Uzbekistan introduced a policy on food security and consequently reduced the irrigated area allocated to cotton and increased the area of winter wheat. Shifting to winter wheat allowed farmers to grow a second crop outside the state-order system. The second crops are the most profitable and therefore farmers tried to maximize the area grown to this second crop. Although the second crops are the most profitable, only few studies have focused on this topic. Evidence is presented which shows that state control of crops has been extended from the main crops, cotton and wheat, to the second crops. Satellite images used for classification of main crops in two provinces of the Ferghana Valley for 20062011, highlight that the area utilized for second crops is dependent on the infrastructure that enables access to the water resource, not on the area’s position within the irrigation system.

Soil erosion due to accelerating runoff in various land cover types pose a serious threat to the long term sustainability of the fragile Himalayan landscape characterized by subsistence farming. Delimitation of high runoff zones, fostering soil erosion in the agricultural dominated watersheds is thus a necessity for watershed managers, NGO’s, urban planners, policy makers, and municipal administrations. The approach is practical, SWAT is a straightforward modeling system using GIS information. The BMP is also a very practical approach to mitigation of runoff accumulation on sub basin. A set of interviews with people familiar to the issues locally strengthened the confidence in the results. Results from this research show that terraces can reduce storm water runoff very effectively. There is a huge difference in amount of runoff after terraces are added to the simulation. Results showed a reduction of 57% in runoff volume during August 2004. If the area near the river is preserved as a buffer strip and a tree cover is maintained around it then it minimizes the effect surface runoff. The effect of riparian buffer is modeled in SWAT and the results show about 6% decrease in surface runoff when a buffer of 500 m is applied around the main river only. This study has drawn a location map of BMP implementations of most meaningful impact for the rehabilitation and safeguard of rivers, streams, lakes and wetlands around the river Siran in the Mansehra Tehsil, Pakistan.

Hydrological modeling is an indispensable component of water resources research and management in large river basins. There is a tendency for each new group working in a basin to develop their own model, resulting in a plethora of such tools for each major basin. The question then becomes: how much modeling is enough? This study reviews hydrological modeling in four large basins (Nile, Mekong, Ganges and Indus). Based on this review, four areas for action to improve effectiveness and reduce duplication in hydrological modeling of large basins are suggested. Model setups and input data, as well as model results, should be published, to allow more coordinated approaches and capitalize on past modeling efforts. More focus is needed on reporting uncertainty, to allow more realistic assessment of the degree of confidence in using results for policy and management. Initiatives are needed to improve the quantity and quality of data for model input, calibration and validation, both traditional hydrological monitoring (improved networks, expansion of automated systems) and new methods for data collection (remote sensing, crowd-sourcing and community based observations). Finally, within each major basin, an appropriate agency should be identified and resourced to take responsibility for data sharing and coordination, to reduce redundancy of effort and promote collaboration.

International river basins cover a vast majority of the land surface, international cooperation is therefore important for the proper management, and to assure equitable and effective use in the basins. Key elements to improve international cooperation are common understanding of the issues in the basin, understanding upstream-downstream impacts and sharing a common vision for the future. This article focuses on the role of games in international basin cooperation to create awareness and to support policy development. The paper analysed the effects of the game in creating awareness and upgrading knowledge amongst water and related professionals and in designing procedures for cooperation in transboundary river basins. This was analysed during the implementation of the game with 28 participants from the four Lower Mekong countries. The impact on creating awareness and upgrading knowledge was evaluated through the use of questionnaires and pre- and post evaluation questions and for the design of policies, a SWOT analysis was used to evaluate the usefulness of the policies and frameworks as well as to identify possible improvements to the framework. The game implementation proved to be an appropriate tool to provide a practical way for stakeholders to become acquainted with the administrative and technical tools available in the Lower Mekong Basin. Pre- and post test shows that participants gained substantial knowledge on transboundary cooperation and use of tools. The game was part of a longer training programme addressing all the issues, however, the participants gained additional knowledge and insight by playing the game, well above what they had learned during the earlier training workshops. Playing the game proved an important aspect in training and education of such complex systems. The study also shows the role games can play in policy analysis, in particular the way the game provided insight in the design of the policy and the development of procedures, and their function to review and update policies and procedures. A number of recommendations have been made to strengthen the role in both training and education as well as in design of procedures.

Although originally conceived as farmer organizations, today water user associations (WUAs) are expected to incorporate different water users and uses. However, the inclusion of different client groups in WUAs’ governance and management structure and the expansion of their service provision appear to present certain challenges. Using a case study from Uzbekistan, this paper explores whether a recently established WUA is able to integrate small users in village settlements and to provide services to meet the rising water demands of the rural population in Ferghana province. The finding shows that traditional water control, including technical, organizational, political and socio-economic components, is ill equipped to integrate the rural community. This challenge will increase with increasing population pressure and finite resources.

This paper analyzes the effect of the shallow water table on water use of the winter wheat (Triticumaestivum L.) that has replaced alfalfa (Medicago sativa) on the irrigated lands of the Fergana Valley,upstream of the Syrdarya River, in Central Asia. The effect of the shallow water table is investigated using HYDRUS-1D. Numerical simulations show that the contribution of the groundwater to evapotranspiration increases with a rising water table and decreases with increasing irrigation applications. Under irrigation conditions, an increase in the groundwater evapotranspiration is associated mainly with an increase in evaporation loss, causing a buildup of salinity in the crop root zone. Evaporation losses from fields planted with winter wheat after the harvest amount up to 4547% of total evaporation thus affecting soil salinity and ecosystem health. Promoting the use of groundwater for irrigation in order to lowerthe groundwater table is suggested to achieve water savings from the change in the cropping pattern.Unlocking the potential of groundwater for irrigation in the Fergana Valley can also contribute toward managing soil salinity and improving the health and resilience of water, land and ecosystems of water,land and ecosystems (WLE).

While conflict and cooperation in Central Asia are mainly focused on the larger basins (Amu and Syr Darya) and the implementation of the agreement reached directly after independence (1991), here an analysis of the history of water-sharing agreements in the Isfara Basin is presented. The paper reveals that there have been fierce negotiations and renegotiations even during the Soviet Union period between the Central Asian riparian republics; agreement was reached mainly though engineering solutions that brought more water to the basin. The paper highlights that although water-sharing agreements were reached early on, the technical capability of implementing these agreements was lacking. Similarly, even after independence, agreements had been reached but lack of water control hindered their implementation.

Millions of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia benefit from readily available and affordable irrigation technologies. The rapid uptake of small private irrigation in South Asia had a proven positive effect on poverty alleviation. In sub-Saharan Africa similar trends are emerging and several studies point to considerable upscaling potential. Achieving this potential would substantially boost smallholder incomes and food security. However, the spread of small private irrigation poses several challenges related to equity, efficiency, and sustainability. Women and resource poor farmers face challenges accessing affordable technologies; market inefficiencies and policy frameworks negatively affect farmer decision-making and technology access; and the unregulated spread of private irrigation may lead to over-abstraction, pollution, and conflicts. In this paper we argue that carefully designed intervention strategies and policy engagement are needed for two reasons. First, there is a need to address potential adverse effects of the ongoing, unregulated spread of small private irrigation while safeguarding its proven benefits on food security and poverty alleviation. Second, relatively straightforward measures can extend the benefits to a broader group of smallholders, including women and the poor, while at the same time ensuring sustainable use of the resource. Based on empirical evidence from case studies in six countries, we identified four elements of such an approach: (1) enhancing technology access; (2) catalyzing smallholder value chains; (3) fostering supportive policies; and (4) strengthening institutional capacity to manage potential trade-offs at the watershed scale.

This paper presents a multifactor approach for performance assessment of Water Users Associations (WUAs) in Uzbekistan in order to identify the drivers for improved and efficient performance of WUAs. The study was carried out in the Fergana Valley where the WUAs were created along the South Fergana Main Canal during the last 10 years. The farmers and the employees of 20 WUAs were questioned about the WUAs’ activities and the quantitative and qualitative data were obtained. This became a base for the calculation of 36 indicators divided into 6 groups: Water supply, technical conditions, economic conditions, social and cultural conditions, organizational conditions and information conditions. All the indicators assessed with a differentiated point system adjusted for subjectivity of several of them give the total maximal result for the associations of 250 point. The WUAs of the Fergana Valley showed the score between 145 and 219 points, what reflects a highly diverse level of the WUAs performance in the region. The analysis of the indicators revealed that the key points of the WUA’s success are the organizational and institutional conditions including the participatory factors and awareness of both the farmers and employees about the work of WUA. The research showed that the low performance of the WUAs is always explained by the low technical and economic conditions along with weak organization and information dissemination conditions. It is clear that it is complicated to improve technical and economic conditions immediately because they are cost-based and cost-induced. However, it is possible to improve the organizational conditions and to strengthen the institutional basis via formal and information institutions which will gradually lead to improvement of economic and technical conditions of WUAs. Farmers should be involved into the WUA Governance and into the process of making common decisions and solving common problems together via proper institutions. Their awareness can also be improved by leading additional trainings for increasing farmers’ agronomic and irrigation knowledge, teaching them water saving technologies and acquainting them with the use of water measuring equipment so it can bring reliable water supply, transparent budgeting and adequate as well as equitable water allocation to the water users.

Increasing demographic pressure, economic development and resettlement policies in the Lower Mekong Basin induce greater population dependency on river flow to satisfy growing domestic and agricultural water demands. This dependency is particularly tight in upland areas where alternative water resources (groundwater) are scarce. As a result, communities tend to live closer to rivers, and so are more vulnerable to floods. This situation requires improved knowledge of flow variability for better management of water resources and risks. Unfortunately, stream flow measurements are scarce, especially in remote areas inhabited by the poorest and most vulnerable populations. Several water resource models have been developed to simulate and predict flows in the Lower Mekong Basin. However, most of these models have been designed to predict flow along the Mekong mainstream, precluding accurate assessments in headwater catchments. In most cases, their complexity and lack of transparency restricts potential users to modelling experts, and largely excludes those practitioners working closely with affected populations. The most integrated and informative way to characterize flow, at a specific location on a river, is to compute a flow duration curve which provides the percentage of time (duration) any particular flow is exceeded over a historical period. Using hydro-meteorological records from more than 60 gauged catchments in the Lower Mekong Basin, and a 90-meter digital elevation model, we used multiple linear regressions to develop power-law models predicting flow duration curves. These simple equations allow assessment of low, medium and high flow metrics, at any point on rivers in the Lower Mekong Basin, using easily determined geomorphological and climate characteristics. We believe that this parsimonious, transparent and highly predictive tool (89% lt;R2lt; 95%) can be used by a wide range of practitioners working in the fields of livelihood, water infrastructure engineering and agriculture.

Impact of climate change on the hydrology of the Ganges River Basin (GRB) is simulated by using a hydrological model Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Climate data from the GCM, Hadley Centre Coupled Model, version 3 (HadCM3) was downscaled with PRECIS for the GRB under A1B Special Report on Emission Scenarios (SRES) scenarios. The annual average precipitation will increase by 2.2% and 14.1% by 2030 and 2050, respectively, compared to the baseline period (19812010). Spatial distribution of the future precipitation shows that in the substantial areas of the middle part of the GRB, the annual precipitation in 2030 and 2050 will be reduced compared to the baseline period. Simulations indicate that in 2050 the total groundwater recharge would increase by 12%, while the increase of evapotranspiration will be about 10% compared to the baseline period. The water yield is also expected to increase in the future (up to 40% by 2050 compared to baseline), especially during the wetter months. The model setup is available for free from IWMI’s modelling inventory.

Over last decades, we have witnessed an upward global trend in natural disaster occurrence. Hydrological and meteorological disasters are the main contributors to this pattern. In 2011, hydrological disaster, such as floods and wet mass movements, represented 52% of the overall disaster reported, causing 139.8 million victims and more than U.S. $70 billion in damages. Remote sensing from space plays an important role in flood mapping and flood risk assessment. Satellite images acquired in both optical and microwave range of electro-magnetic emissions are utilized for solving many problems related to flood risk management. This paper presents two different research activities (1) flood detection algorithm which uses vegetation and water indices (NDVI, EVI, LSWI, DVEL) at a spatial resolution of 500m and time period 2000 2013 using MODIS Terra/Aqua and JAXA PALSAR satellite to spatially and temporally quantify flood inundation extent at a continental scale in South Asia, Southeast Asia and Nigeria in the context of emergency response and (2) blending satellite data and RADAR (Rapid Agriculture Disaster Assessment Routine) tool for rapid flood damage assessment in agriculture with a case study in Sri Lanka. The results of the present study will provide valuable information to flood policy makers and flood disaster researchers.

Food security and economic livelihood of millions of people in Asia and Africa shall continue to depend upon the flows in the major rivers. Variability of water and other resources in time and space is the major natural impediment for sustainable agriculture, food production and development at large. The extremes of variability - floods and droughts - are the primary quot;agentsquot; of destruction, severe crop damage and loss of human life. According to EM-DAT (2012), about 3 billion people in more than 110 countries are affected by catastrophic flooding. In 2011 alone they killed tens of thousands of people, primarily in developing countries, and caused over $150 billion in damage globally. Our present capacity to understand and make a reasonable forecast of the occurrence and thus management of such anomalies is rather inadequate. Earth observation (EO) satellites play a major role in the provision of information for the study and monitoring of the water resources and can support better understanding in Agricultural Water Resource Management. Their global nature also helps to address the problems of data continuity in trans-national basins where complete, consolidated, and consistent information may be difficult to obtain. In the years to come, EO technology will enter into a new era, where the increasing number of more sophisticated missions will provide scientists with an unprecedented capacity to observe and monitor the different components of climate variability on water resources from the local to the global scales. Already today, global observations of several key parameters governing the global water dynamics (e.g. precipitation, soil moisture, evaporation, transpiration, water levels, mass balance, gravity-derived groundwater measurements, etc.) are feasible. In addition, significant progress has been made in the area of data assimilation enhancing the capabilities to integrate EO-based product into suitable land surface and hydrological models; hence opening new opportunities for science and application. The presentation will illustrate examples of such information and solutions globally and from large river basins in Asia and Africa including flood risks and drought monitoring; Smart-lCT system for climate and weather information, irrigated area mapping etc.

The changing role of the state and the increased participation of non-state actors has blurred the meaning of international affairs and highlighted overlapping power structures at international, national, and local levels. This paper illustrates how these power structures shape the hydropower decision making landscape in one of the world’s most dynamic transboundary basins, the Mekong. Using the Lao PDR as a case study, we highlight how international donors’ influence in the overall shaping of national policy and legal frameworks, the state’s positioning of hydropower development as the main source of revenue, and the emerging importance of private sector actors manifested in overlapping rules and legal plurality in hydropower decision making. While legal plurality reflects the inherently contested terrain of hydropower, it also highlights the importance of power geometries and the scale dynamics in hydropower governance. The growing role of non-state actors may be interpreted as a reduction in state decision making power, but it may also be seen as a means for the state to take advantage of competing interests, in this case receiving both donor funding and private capital. If international donors expect national government agencies to promote meaningful application of internationally defined socio-environmental safeguards, they need to create space for critical discussion and move beyond the current standardized approach in promoting sustainable hydropower development.

Water is getting scarce in many parts of the world, consequently challenging researchers, policy makers and practitioners to design options for a more efficient use of these resources, especially in irrigated agriculture. Although technical-economic efficiency of potential water-wise options and institutional restrictions for their implementation in the developing and less-developed countries are well documented, little evidence exists about the incentives for farmers and regional development agencies to adopt the efficient irrigation innovations. A linear programming model for optimizing regional agricultural income was developed to analyze the impact of water availability, water pricing, and investment accessibility on water-wise innovation adoption and conveyance efficiency improvement. The model was applied to the case of Khorezm, a region in northwestern Uzbekistan that is part of the downstream Amu Darya River in the Aral Sea Basin. Model results indicate that improving conveyance efficiency is economically less attractive than improving field-level water use efficiency due to enormous investment costs for lining the canals. Water-wise options such as manuring cotton and potatoes, implementing hydrogel in wheat and cotton, and drip irrigation of melons and vegetables are among the most promising field-level improvement options to gain optimal regional incomes under decreased water availability and increased water prices. It is illustrated that despite the huge investments needed for a wide-scale implementation of modern irrigation technologies such as drip irrigation and laser-guided land leveling, their adoption will substantially improve water use efficiency, while their implementation costs can be compensated for by the additional revenues due to increased yields and reduced costs.

Improving irrigation efficiency is of utmost importance in the irrigated lands of Central Asia, such as the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan, since water misuse and subsequent soil salinization threaten environment, economy, and livelihoods. To this end, several field-level ‘water-wise’ innovations were selected, which are classified into four groups that address crop pattern change, soil moisture maintenance, uniform water distribution, and furrow irrigation improvement. The potential of these innovations to raise irrigation water use efficiency from its current low level was analyzed from a socio-economic and technical point of view with a focus on short-term measures to cope with sudden water shortages. The overall water use reduction potential of these options was estimated considering their adoption feasibility within the time horizon of one year. To prioritize the examined innovations according to their contribution to overall water use reduction and water profitability, ‘marginal water profitability curves’ were developed. This integrated approach could serve as a simple but effective policy tool. The findings indicate that the option of replacing rice by maize contributes to more than 50 % of the total possible water use reduction. However, while all the other options increase the total revenue, reduced revenues will be unavoidable when paddy rice is replaced by maize. Manuring provides the highest additional profit per volume of reduced water use, but contributes less than 10 % of the total water use reduction potential. With water-wise options as an immediate and short-term measure to cope with sudden water shortages, the theoretical total estimated water reduction at the field level amounts to 183 376,000,000 m3 or 9.0 18.5 % of the current total irrigation water requirement in the region. For coping with sudden shortages characterized by a water availability of only 60 % of the normal water supply, long-term planning and management of irrigation activities focusing on a wider adoption of advanced irrigation technologies are necessary.

The food security crisis, international “land grabs,” and new markets for environmental services have drawn renewed attention to the role of natural resource competition in the livelihoods of the rural poor. While significant empirical research has focused on diagnosing the links between natural resource competition and (violent) conflict, much less has focused on the dynamics of whether and how resource competition can be transformed to strengthen social-ecological resilience and mitigate conflict. Focusing on this latter theme, this review synthesizes evidence from a wide range of cases in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Building on an analytical framework designed to enable such comparative analysis; we present several propositions about the dynamics of conflict and collective action in natural resource management, and a series of recommendations for action. These propositions are: that collective action in natural resources management is influenced by the social-ecological and governance context, that natural resource management institutions affect the incentives for conflict or cooperation, and that the outcomes of these interactions influence future conflict risk, livelihoods, and resource sustainability. Action recommendations concern policies addressing resource tenure, conflict resolution mechanisms, and social inequalities, as well as strategies to strengthen collective action institutions in the natural resource sectors and to enable more equitable engagement by marginalized groups in dialogue and negotiation over resource access and use.

The Multi-stakeholder Policy Formulation and Action Planning approach was applied in the context of a multi-city study to influence and/or change policies that govern urban agriculture practices in three African and two Asian countries. Although the approach was successful and resulted in remarkable outcomes, it showed space for improvement to facilitate its application. The study also showed that there are significant regional differences in how best to achieve policy change, which require careful attention in order to achieve the highest returns on investment in the facilitation of impact pathways.

Doubling of population, since the 1970s, in the Aral Sea Basin of Central Asia led to the increased demand for water and energy. The shift of the key upstream reservoir on the Naryn River, main tributary of the Syrdarya River, from irrigation to hydropower generation reduced available water for irrigation in the summer and created excessive flows in the winter. The downstream reservoirs do not have free capacities for storing the excessive winter flows. This report examines the possibility of additional subsurface storages of water in a part of the Syrdarya River Basin, the Fergana Valley. The report aims to bring the attention of policymakers to alternative development of basin water management, which requires cooperation of riparian states in the use of water and energy.

Doubling of population, since the 1970s, in the Aral Sea Basin of Central Asia led to the increased demand for water and energy. The shift of the key upstream reservoir on the Naryn River, main tributary of the Syrdarya River, from irrigation to hydropower generation reduced available water for irrigation in the summer and created excessive flows in the winter. The downstream reservoirs do not have free capacities for storing the excessive winter flows. This report examines the possibility of additional subsurface storages of water in a part of the Syrdarya River Basin, the Fergana Valley. The report aims to bring the attention of policymakers to alternative development of basin water management, which requires cooperation of riparian states in the use of water and energy.

The hydrological roles of glaciers and seasonal snow in the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Amu Darya, Syr Darya and Mekong basins are, for the first time, assessed comprehensively at a major river basin scale in this paper. Contribution of glacier runoff, subdivided into renewable and nonrenewable components, and seasonal snowmelt to mean annual flow is evaluated for two time slices: 1961-1990 and 2001-2010. The recent changes of the hydrological roles of glaciers and snow, and the most likely changes of those under future climate change are analyzed.

This paper presents a comprehensive assessment of the water storage properties of glaciers and seasonal snow, carried out for the first time at a major river basin scale, for the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Amu Darya, Syr Darya and Mekong basins. It analyzes the changes of glaciers and snow under recent climate change, i.e., between the baseline (1961-1990) and current (2001-2010) periods. The paper also addresses climate change sensitivity of glacier systems and the changes that might be expected under a warming scenario for the end of the twenty-first century.

In the context of ecological and economic change, this paper identifies the impact of ongoing transformations in young peopleapos;s labour contribution in four natural resource-dependent regions in India, Vietnam and China. Childrenapos;s work is important to maximise household labour productivity, while also endowing them with the ecological knowledge necessary to sustain key productive livelihood activities. However, today, an increased emphasis on education and the out-migration of youth is reducing their labour contribution, particularly in the more economically developed case study communities in Northern Vietnam and China. While selective in its extent, these changes have increased the labour burden of older household members and women, while the economic opportunities young people aspire to following schooling or migration frequently prove elusive in a competitive liberalised economy. Another implication of young people diverting their labour and learning away from traditional natural resource-based livelihood activities is the loss of valuable ecological knowledge.

The paper presents and contrasts the experiences and challenges of three Regional Water Education Networks in Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) - WaterNet (Southern and Eastern Africa), Crossing Boundaries (South Asia) and Concertacion (Andes, Latin America). These continental water networks emerged in the new millennium primarily out of dissatisfaction with traditional North-South development and scientific cooperation. Rather than concentrating on centres of excellence that provide universal one-size-fits-all-models, these regional networks of knowledge centres set out to develop a contextual knowledge base on water resources management and build capacity in accordance with regional training needs. These collaborative partnerships have now gained experience in training a new generation of water professionals, who have learnt to appreciate the regional diversity in water problems and design relevant solutions for their regions, often in cooperation with local stakeholders. In this paper, we document and discuss the experiences of these regional networks, focusing especially on the networksapos; different approaches to 1) interdisciplinary and gender approaches, 2) the connection between capacity development, research and policy advocacy.

Malformations and increased mortality due to infection by the digenetic trematode, Riberioa ondatrae have been reported for many species of amphibians. Severe malformations have also been reported in the Common Hourglass Tree Frog, Polypedates cruciger induced by Pleurolophocercous cercariae in Sri Lanka in addition to the changes in the behaviour, development and survival of the host. We exposed pre-limb bud stage tadpoles (Gosner stages 2526) of the Asian Common Toad, Duttaphrynus melanostictus to the same pleurolophocercous type cercariae under laboratory conditions. Molecular and morphological identification showed that these cercariae belonged Acanthostomum burminis infecting freshwater snakes as definitive hosts. These cercariae induced malformations (27.8%) and reduced survival to metamorphosis (53.8%). The magnitude of the effects increased with the dose of cercariae. Types of malformations were mainly axial, such as scoliosis and kyphosis. Severe limb malformations such as extra or missing limbs as reported for amphibians exposed to R. ondatrae were not observed in the D. melanostictus. Same authors reported a higher percentage of malformations previously when P. cruciger was exposed to the cercariae A. burminis compared to D. melanostictus. However, tadpoles of D. melanostictus, which are smaller compared to those of P. cruciger, experienced higher mortality than P. cruciger tadpoles. Trematode induced malformations and mortality in amphibians are highly variable and depend on multiple factors such as host species differences such as resistance to infection and tolerance, life-history characteristics such as size at metamorphosis and length of the metamorphosis period, and other factors such as size of the amphibian at the time of trematode exposure.

Irrigation with wastewater supports agricultural production and the livelihoods of millions of smallholder farmers in many parts of the world. Considering the importance of better wastewater management at the local and national levels, there is a need for updated national data on wastewater generation, treatment, and use, which would also assist in regional and global wastewater assessments. While searching data and literature in published or electronic forms for 181 countries, we find that only 55 countries have data available on all three aspects of wastewater generation, treatment, and use. The number of countries with one or two aspects of wastewater generation, treatment, and use is 69, while there is no information available from 57 countries. Of the available information, only 37% of the data could be categorized as recent (reported during 20082012). The available data suggest that high-income countries on average treat 70% of the generated wastewater, followed by upper-middle-income countries (38%), lower-middle-income countries (28%), and low-income countries, where only 8% of the wastewater generated is treated. The availability of current information on wastewater generation, treatment, and use is crucially important for policy makers, researchers, and practitioners, as well as public institutions, to develop national and local action plans aiming at safe and productive use of wastewater in agriculture, aquaculture, and agroforestry systems. The country level information aggregated at the regional and global levels would help in identifying the gaps in pertinent data availability and assessing the potential of wastewater in food, feed, and fish production at different scales.

The Vietnam War played a decisive role in the pre-1990s deforestation of the lower Mekong Basin, which in turn likely influenced regional broad-scale hydrology. This note presents and discusses new analyses that strengthen this thesis. Although concurrent overestimation of discharge and underestimation of rainfall, a couple of years after bombing climaxed in the early 1970s, could theoretically explain the sharp rise in water yield previously attributed to bomb-induced deforestation, new observations suggest that bombing has durably modified the landscape: by 2002, degraded forests still largely overlapped with areas heavily bombed 30 years earlier. This corroborates observed long-term hydrological changes and suggests that warfare-induced deforestation has more profound and durable hydrological effects than previously thought.

Water demand for irrigated agriculture is increasing against limited availability of fresh water resources in the lower reaches of the Amu Darya River e.g., Khorezm region of Uzbekistan. Future scenarios predict that Khorezm region will receive fewer water supplies due to climate change, transboundary conflicts and hence farmers have to achieve their yield targets with less water. We conducted a study and used AquaCrop model to develop the optimum and deficit irrigation schedule under shallow groundwater conditions (1.01.2 m) in the study region. Cotton being a strategic crop in the region was used for simulations. Capillary rise substantially contributes to crop-water requirements and is the key characteristic of the regional soils. However, AquaCrop does not simulate capillary rise contribution, thereby HYDRUS-1D model was used in this study for the quantification of capillary rise contribution. Alongside optimal irrigation schedule for cotton, deficit strategies were also derived in two ways: proportional reduction from each irrigation event (scenario-A) throughout the growth period as well as reduced water supply at specific crop growth stages (scenario-B). For scenario-A, 20, 40, 50 and 60 % of optimal water was deducted from each irrigation quota whereas for scenario-B irrigation events were knocked out at different crop growth stages (stage 1(emergence), stage 2 (vegetative), stage 3 (flowering) and stage 4 (yield formation and ripening)). For scenario-A, 0, 14, 30 and 48 % of yield reduction was observed respectively. During stress at the late crop development stage, a reduced water supply of 12 % resulted in a yield increase of 8 %. Conversely, during stress at the earlier crop development stage, yield loss was 1718 %. During water stress at the late ripening stage, no yield loss was observed. Results of this study provide guidelines for policy makers to adopt irrigation schedule depending upon availability of irrigation water.

A ‘farmer-centric’ innovative institutional mechanism, a public-private partnership, was created and strengthened, in the Fergana valley of Central Asia, for facilitating communication between farmers and researchers, and to disseminate knowledge on improved agronomic and irrigation management practices to improve water productivity at field level. As a result, yields of cotton from the twenty five demonstration sites in the three countries of Fergana valley - Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan were, on the average, 28% higher than the average yield of cotton in the valley, suggesting that the proposed institutional mechanism was very effective in dissemination of information to farmers. Yields from neighboring farmers of demonstration fields were 14% higher than the average yields. In addition, demonstration site farmers used, on the average, 20% less water than the non-project farmers. Two independent external reviewers stated that this innovative public-private mechanism was very effective in disseminating information on improving water productivity at plot level to farmers, and suggested that the focus in the future should be on devising effective policy and economic instruments for financial sustainability of the innovation cycle after the donor support is withdrawn.

This paper addresses a snow-mapping algorithm for the Tibetan Plateau region using Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data. Accounting for the effects of the atmosphere and terrain on the satellite observations at the top of the atmosphere (TOA), particularly in the rugged Tibetan Plateau region, the surface reflectance is retrieved from the TOA reflectance after atmospheric and topographic corrections. To reduce the effect of the misclassification of snow and cloud cover, a normalized difference cloud index (NDCI) model is proposed to discriminate snow/cloud pixels, separate from the MODIS cloud mask product MOD35. The MODIS land surface temperature (LST) product MOD11 L2 is also used to ensure better accuracy of the snow cover classification. Comparisons of the resulting snow cover with those estimated from high spatial-resolution Landsat ETM+ data and obtained from MODIS snow cover product MOD10 L2 for the Mount Everest region for different seasons in 2002, show that the MODIS snow cover product MOD10 L2 overestimates the snow cover with relative error ranging from 20.1% to 55.7%, whereas the proposed algorithm estimates the snow cover more accurately with relative error varying from 0.3% to 9.8%. Comparisons of the snow cover estimated with the proposed algorithm and those obtained from MOD10 L2 product with in situ measurements over the Hindu Kush-Himalayan (HKH) region for December 2003 and January 2004 (the snowy seasons) indicate that the proposed algorithm can map the snow cover more accurately with greater than 90% agreement.

Regional and local trends in rainfall intensity, frequency, seasonality, and extremes were analyzed in the central Mekong Basin in continental Southeast Asia over the period 19532004 using the modified MannKendall test, accounting for long-term persistence and the regional average of the Kendall’s statistic. Regionally significant and insignificant wetting tendencies of the dry and wet seasons, respectively, were found to be consistent with rainfall alterations in the neighboring southeastern part of China and attributed by previous studies to the weakening of the East Asia Summer and Winter Monsoons. These observations suggest the existence of causal links between global warming and rainfall changes observed in continental Southeast Asia. Although these changes most likely did not alter agricultural production, they confirm the need to account for climate change impacts when assessing water resources availability in this region under rapid economic development.

Mangroves are one of the most productive ecosystems globally, providing a wide range of ecosystem services and providing critical support to livelihoods. Although often associated with highly productive natural fisheries, mangrove forests are threatened in Southeast Asia in particular due to conversion to aquaculture. Despite their importance for livelihoods, carbon cycling and ecology, large uncertainties exist regarding the status and extent of mangroves globally. In addition changes in mangroves occur fast and updated information about their change status is required; for countries participating in REDD+, UNFCCC requires reporting at least on a bi-annual basis. Existing assessments of mangrove dynamics have typically focused on a limited number of discrete locations at fine detail using a variety of data types, and have not been documented and presented holistically. Until recently, routine detection of change in mangroves was problematic in many tropical and sub-tropical regions because of the persistence of cloud. Radar satellites can acquire data regardless of clouds, smoke and haze. The Global Mangrove Watch is an international collaborative project which aims to produce updated information about the worlds mangrove areas on an annual basis, and is being undertaken within the framework of the ALOS Kyoto and Carbon (Kamp;C) initiative. This initiative revolves around the use of data gathered from JAXA’s Phased Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) on-board the Advanced Land Observation Satellite (ALOS) platform to support the information needs raised by international environmental conventions, carbon cycle science and the conservation of the environment. The Kamp;C initiative builds upon the experience gained from the JERS-1 Global Rain Forest and Boreal Forest Mapping (GRFM/GBFM) projects which demonstrated the ability of L-band SAR for mapping and monitoring wetland areas at a spatial and temporal consistency. Under the Wetlands Theme of the Kamp;C initiative, a set of key products are being generated, mapped and made publicly available, including the development of inventories of mangroves and associated peat swamp forests. An updated mangrove baseline and subsequent annual change maps is being produced using spaceborne radar images, primarily gathered from PALSAR. The dataset will be supported with additional radar imagery from the Japanese Earth Resource Satellite (JERS-1) where available. The Global Mangrove Watch is the first assessment of mangrove dynamics across the tropics, with results that are directly comparable between regions due to the consistency of the time period over which the imagery was gathered. This dataset will enable a comprehensive assessment of the status of and changes in mangrove ecosystems globally.

To meet rising demands for food and energy, the number of hydropower dams is growing rapidly and irrigation schemes will likely expand, in the Mekong Basin. The cumulative hydrological effect of planned water resources development has previously been assessed at the Mekong Basin scale. This paper analyzes how water control structures modify the balance between water demand and water supply along the Nam Ngum River, a Mekong tributary in Lao PDR. The Nam Ngum Basin, already containing both irrigation schemes and hydropower dams, has the potential for significantly enlarged river-fed irrigation, as well as additional upstream hydropower dams. We analyzed flow data recorded since 1962, in combination with a reservoir system optimization model, to assess changes in monthly river flows induced by existing and planned hydropower dams. Current and potential irrigation water demands were assessed from satellite images, cropping calendars and simple crop water balance. Our results indicate that, by the 2030s, if eight hydropower dams are completed in the Nam Ngum Basin, dry season river flow could increase by more than 200% and wet season flows could decrease by 20%. In the absence of dam storage, current irrigation water demand would compete with minimum environmental flow requirements during dry years. In contrast, full hydropower development allows current irrigation water demand to triple, to reach the potential levels of development, whilst maintaining environmental flows. The contribution of the Nam Ngum Basin to the Mekong River flow at Kratie, a few hundreds kilometers upstream of the Tonle Sap Lake, has changed from 5 to 15% in April, since hydropower dams started developing in the Mekong Basin, suggesting that the effect of water control development in the Nam Ngum Basin impacts water resources further downstream. Beyond the effects on water resources, there are a number of other impacts on fisheries, sediment, biodiversity, ecosystems, and population resettlement that should be considered in order to better understand the environmental and socioeconomic costs and benefits of these hydropower dams.

Assessing the impacts of global warming on rainfall is crucial in the Mekong region where food production mostly relies on rainfed agriculture. Changes in rainfall in recent decades, and their possible associations to climate change, remain poorly understood in Southeast Asia. Spatial and temporal rainfall variability, observed at various scales, often explain the apparent inconsistencies between previous rainfall trend analyses. To address these problems, we used a trend detection test able to discriminate multiyear variability and long-term unidirectional trends in rainfall time series. Regional testing enabled the detection of significant synoptic disturbances that remain insignificant at the local level because of the high variability of small-scale rainfall events. Regional and local trends in rainfall intensity, frequency, seasonality, and extremes were analysed in the central Mekong Basin over the period 1953-2004. Our results indicate that dry season rainfall has significantly increased in frequency (more rainy days) and intensity (higher cumulative rainfall depths). A significant positive trend was also observed in the annual number of rainy days. Although statistically insignificant, wet season rainfall followed the same pattern of change. These regional changes were found to be consistent with rainfall alterations already observed in the neighbouring south-eastern part of China and attributed to the weakening of the East Asia Summer and Winter Monsoons. Consistency in rainfall changes observed in Continental Southeast Asia and in South-Eastern China, suggests that these two neighbouring regions have been subject to the same alterations in large-scale atmospheric circulation previously attributed to global warming. These observations suggest that human-induced climate change has started to alter rainfall patterns in the Mekong Basin, confirming the need to account for a non-stationary climate when assessing the water resource availability in this region.

Floods are one of the most frequent and widespread natural hazards in the world. A recent example is the 2011 floods in three of the four Lower Mekong Basin Countries (Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam) that caused severe impacts in terms of loss of life and damage to infrastructure. Several studies have highlighted the increasing importance of developing spatio-temporal flood hazard databases to understand flood dynamics more systematically at a range of spatial scales within South East Asia (SEA). This study is proceeding on two distinct fronts: the first focusses on ranking and prioritization of impacts across SEA, whilst the other examines an approach to flood monitoring that evaluates the feasibility of implementing possible mitigation strategies that still provide for the degree of flow variability needed to maintain ecosystems. Firstly, long-term time-series data from multiple sources (e.g. EM-DAT, DFO, Sentinel Asia) was used in identifying flood hotspots including their frequency, intensity/severity and societal impacts. This will also help in evaluating and improving hydrological modeling predictions and provide better information for more effective flood hazard, flood risk and preparedness studies. Flood hotspots were further investigated taking into account of agricultural extent loss, populations at risk and economic loss. The results from the hotspot analysis suggest more climate risk investments are needed to minimize risk and are likely to have the biggest payoff in terms of reduced losses. The nature of those investments and the associated cost-benefits are being revealed. Secondly, a new approach is being developed for flood monitoring from time-series MODIS data acquired from 2000 to 2012. This approach will help in identifying basin to regional-scale temporal changes in inundated area; duration of inundation cycles between large-medium-small scale floods. Thus satellite-based mapping of flood risks areas will help in identifying prospective areas for floodwater harvesting in the upstream areas to reduce negative impacts downstream.

There is increasing concern over projected changes in the magnitude and timing of streamflow due to the construction of hydropower dams in the Mekong basin and elsewhere. We compare a suite of indicators for their ability to reflect changes from pre-dam flow regimes. Using two case studies, we illustrate the differences in hydrologic alteration that take place downstream of dams that are used for (i) in-stream power production (Nam Ngum 1 Dam) and (ii) diverting water to off-stream production sites (Nam Theun-Hinboun Project). We show that dams for in-stream power production reduce wet season flows, increase dry season flows and attenuate both high- and low-flow extremes. In contrast, dams constructed for off-stream power production mildly reduce flood peaks when diversions are possible during extreme high flow conditions while dry season streamflow declines sharply due to the priority placed on hydropower production. Our analysis summarizes the effects of dams on the frequency, duration, timing and rates of change of discharge at sites downstream of dams. We then review the relevance of metrics of hydrologic alteration for assessing impacts of hydropower dams on livelihoods dependent upon the natural variability of the flow regime in monsoonal climate zones.

The management of water resources according to hydrological boundaries at different implementation levels (river basin, irrigation system, or water user association) is promoted internationally. This approach to water management, especially for the basin, is starting to be challenged from different perspectives: representation within basins. appropriateness for basins in the south, and the challenges of merging boundaries for surface and groundwater sources. It has been challenged only recently in relation to its appropriateness for indigenously constructed (informal) irrigation systems. To these critiques, this paper adds the historical development and originally intended purpose of engineered irrigation systems and therefore calls into question whether it is always possible to introduce hydrological boundary management in the formal systems in Central Asia.

The river basin management approach in the Syr Darya basin fragmented after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. However, this approach had already created dependencies between riparian states such as transboundary water control infrastructure. At the national level, these states hardly cooperate, but at the province and district level, especially in the Ferghana Valley, which is shared by Kyrgyzstan., Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, cooperation continues. This paper analyzes transboundary cooperation in the Ferghana Valley. On the periphery, conflict and cooperation still take place on both water management infrastructure and water sharing. The greatest hindrance to cooperation- border control -is outside the realm at water management, but is key given the property rights to water management infrastructure in the neighboring riparian states.

Irrigation management transfer (IMT) reforms in most transition economies of Central Asia have largely relied on the funding and expertise of multiple international aid providers. Such reforms are aimed at the establishment of water users associations; however, progress has remained slow and patchy due to poor aid coordination and poor knowledge regarding what works and what does not. This paper argues that a sector-wide impact study is needed to better inform and consolidate local IMT reform. Placing the discourse within the larger domain of evaluation research, this article looks into the approaches, tools, and practical implications of such an impact study.

In discussing the 1997 UN Watercourse Convention, McCaffrey (1998) gave a theoretical example of the late-developer problem. This paper complements that theoretical example with a real case study of the Zerafshan basin in Central Asia. While McCalliey addressed the water quantity issue in his example, the focus here also includes water pollution. The aim of the paper is to analyze some of the provisions of the mechanisms in the field of international water law- the Helsinki Rules and the UN Watercourses Convention- for water quantity and quality aspects, as well as to provide an insight into the basin regarding these two aspects.

Gender is a socially constructed concept. It refers to the social, behavioral, and cultural norms, attributes, and expectations associated with being a woman or a man. Gender equality refers to how these aspects determine how women and men interact with each other and to the resulting differences in economic opportunities, endowments, agency and overall wellbeing outcomes for men and women. Gender mainstreaming refers to making general policies gender-smart - at various level of governance - to target the gender differentiated impacts and outcomes and implementing public policies and international development cooperation in a more strategic way that also improves gender equality and makes policies more effective in closing the key gender gaps even if their objectives has nothing to do with gender. Gender equality ranks high on the global development agenda and evidence-based gender targeting is emerging as a key criteria in international development assistance programs such as those for enhancing food security and reducing poverty and the broader development goals such as those set by the MDGs to 2015 and beyond. This chapter presents evidence on gender equality issues to highlight the key gender gaps such as assets, education, health, land, labor and commodity markets, and participation into decision making through six case examples from Asia and Africa. The case examples from Asia come from Pakistan and India, while the case examples from Africa are from Ethiopia and Zimbabwe. These case examples illustrate that gender gaps are huge and targeted interventions and gender mainstreaming can enhance economic opportunity, endowments, and agency of women. What is needed is the political will along with more funding, better data on gender, evidence, and global partnerships.

Groundwater in coastal zones around the globe is a critical asset in securing water, food and general development for millions of people. Particularly, in the Asia-Pacific region, such resources are significantly depended on in rural as well as urban areas for a wide range of uses, often as the only water source, which is exemplified by small island states. Present and future stresses on these significant, but often vulnerable systems, from human development, urbanization, climate change, and extreme events call for better understanding and awareness of these resources, their protection and best management approaches. The present chapter deals with the current level of knowledge of coastal groundwater systems in continental and island settings in the Asia-Pacific, their uses, vulnerabilities and hazards from various sources. The objective of the paper is to propose through an integrated framework approach how sustainable and resilient groundwater management can be promoted and enhanced. The work is partially based on the case of the tsunami in eastern Sri Lanka and the immense challenges but also opportunities it entailed for local and higher level groundwater management.

This article surveys the state of water pollution in Asia. The authors discuss the various causes of deteriorating water quality, arguing that the pace and scale of the policy response must increase rapidly.

Cotton water productivity was studied in Fer- gana Valley of Central Asia during the years of 2009, 2010 and 2011. Data was collected from 18 demonstration fields (13 in Uzbekistan, 5 in Taji- kistan). The demonstration field farmers imple- mented several improved agronomic and irriga- tion water management practices. The average values of crop yield, estimated crop consump- tive use (ETa) and total water applied (TWA) for the demonstration sites were, respectively, 3700 kg/ha, 6360 m3/ha, and 8120 m3/ha. The range of values for TWA and ETa were, respectively, 5000 m3/ha to 12,000 m3/ha and 4500 m3/ha to 8000 m3/ha. A quadratic relationship was found be- tween TWA and ETa. The average yield of the adjacent fields was 3300 kg/ha, whereas the av- erage yield of cotton in Fergana Valley as a whole was 2900 kg/ha, indicating 28% and 14% increase in crop yield, respectively, from, dem- onstration fields and adjacent fields. There was no significant difference in crop yields between the wet years (2009 and 2010) and the dry year (2011), which is explained by the quadratic rela- tionship between TWA and ETa. The water pro- ductivity values ranged from 0.35 kg/m3 to 0.89 kg/m3, indicating a significant potential for im- proving water productivity through agronomic and irrigation management interventions. The ratio of average ETa divided by average TWA gave an average application efficiency of 78% (some fields under-irrigated and some fields over-irrigated), the remaining 22% of water ap- plied leaving the field. Since more than 60% of the water used for irrigation in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan is pumped from, even if all this 22% of water returns to the stream, substantial en- ergy savings would accrue from improving the average application efficiency at field level. The range of values for TWA indicates the inequity in water distribution/accessibility. Addressing this inequity would also increase water productivity at field and project level.

This article focuses on cooperative adaptation strategies at the community, water user association, district, and national levels along the Khojabakirgansai, a small transboundary tributary of the Syr Darya in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Data were collected in the basin through in-depth expert interviews, site visits, and household surveys, and were triangulated with climate change data from the available literature. Basin inhabitants cooperate on extreme events that are exacerbated by climate change, including water scarcity, droughts, and flash floods. Water demand and efficiency are key issues driven by population growth, expansion of croplands, and deteriorating canal infrastructure. Lessons learned can be considered in other small transboundary tributaries in the Ferghana Valley and Central Asia, which demonstrate how, despite the international level of tension on water issues in the region, local communities can find solutions. Cooperation, however, does not always improve the basin environment or living standards, and is likely to be strained in the coming decades by climate and population trends, among other issues.

This article focuses on cooperative adaptation strategies at the community, water user association, district, and national levels along the Khojabakirgansai, a small transboundary tributary of the Syr Darya in Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Data were collected in the basin through in-depth expert interviews, site visits, and household surveys, and were triangulated with climate change data from the available literature. Basin inhabitants cooperate on extreme events that are exacerbated by climate change, including water scarcity, droughts, and flash floods. Water demand and efficiency are key issues driven by population growth, expansion of croplands, and deteriorating canal infrastructure. Lessons learned can be considered in other small transboundary tributaries in the Ferghana Valley and Central Asia, which demonstrate how, despite the international level of tension on water issues in the region, local communities can find solutions. Cooperation, however, does not always improve the basin environment or living standards, and is likely to be strained in the coming decades by climate and population trends, among other issues.

Storing flow of the Syrdarya River in the aquifers of the upstream Fergana Valley in winter and recovery of this water in summer is examined as a solution for competing demands between upstream hydropower and downstream irrigation. Modelling of the Isfara and Sokh aquifers suggests the potential of reducing the Syrdarya River flow to the Fergana Valley downstream by 540 Mm3 in winter and increasing it by 540 Mm3 in summer. Implementing the proposed strategy in only these two aquifers would cover over 25% of the summer water deficit in the Syrdarya River downstream.

Asia accounts for 70% of the world’s irrigated area and is home to some of the oldest and largest irrigation schemes. While these irrigation schemes played an important role in ensuring food security for billions of people in the past, their current state of affairs leaves much to be desired. This paper takes forward the IWMIFAOADB (Asian Development Bank) recommendation of a five pronged approach for revitalizing Asia’s irrigation and provides a region specific road map for doing this. The underlying principle of these multiple strategies is the belief that the public institutions at the heart of irrigation management in Asia need to give up comfortable rigidity and engage with individual users’ needs and the demands placed by larger societal chang.

This paper tells the story of trade-off between hydropower and irrigation and its implications for groundwater use in Syrdarya basin in Central Asia. With the independence of the central Asian republics, this trade-off has become a transboundary issue. Efforts to coordinate bilateral action using integrated water resources management (IWRM) principles of basin-wide cooperation have not yet yielded the hoped for results. This paper shows that there could be a ‘second best’ option of solving at least part of this transboundary problem by ‘banking’ winter flows released for hydropower production in Kyrgyzstan in the underground aquifers of Uzbekistan’s Fergana Valley and extracting it for irrigation in the summer months.

Contemporary water management decisions use many sources and forms of data. The paper discusses the implementation results of data management activities in the water sector carried out in five countries of the Central Asia region. Geoinformation systems, remote sensing tools and databases have been applied worldwide for improving water resources management with differing levels of success. Water management organisations, equipped with data management tools will have better capacities to adapt their decision-making in the changing availability and scarcity of water resources. Application of data management tools for improving collection, storage and processing of data and information are a first step towards improved water governance.

The management of water resources according to hydrological boundaries at different implementation levels (river basin, irrigation system, or water user association) is promoted internationally. This approach to water management, especially for the basin, is starting to be challenged from different perspectives: representation within basins, appropriateness for basins in the south, and the challenges of merging boundaries for surface and groundwater sources. It has been challenged only recently in relation to its appropriateness for indigenously constructed (informal) irrigation systems. To these critiques, this paper adds the historical development and originally intended purpose of engineered irrigation systems and therefore calls into question whether it is always possible to introduce hydrological boundary management in the formal systems in CentralAsia.

The river basin management approach in the Syr Darya basin fragmented after the disintegration of the Soviet Union. However, this approach had already created dependencies between riparian states, such as transboundary water control infrastructure. At the national level, these states hardly cooperate, but at the province and district level, especially in the Ferghana Valley, which is shared by Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, cooperation continues. This paper analyzes transboundary cooperation in the Ferghana Valley. On the periphery, con ict and cooperation still take place on both water management infrastructure and water sharing. The greatest hindrance to cooperationborder controlis outside the realm of water management, but is key given the property rights to water management infrastructure in the neighbouring riparian states.

Irrigation management transfer (IMT) reforms in most transition economies of Central Asia have largely relied on the funding and expertise of multiple international aid providers. Such reforms are aimed at the establishment of water users associations; however, progress has remained slow and patchy due to poor aid coordination and poor knowledge regarding what works and what does not. This paper argues that a sector-wide impact study is needed to better inform and consolidate local IMT reform. Placing the discourse within the larger domain of evaluation research, this article looks into the approaches, tools, and practical implications of such an impact study.

In discussing the 1997 UN Watercourses Convention, McCaffrey (1998) gave a theoretical example of the late-developer problem. This paper complements that theoretical example with a real case study of the Zerafshan basin in Central Asia. While McCaffrey addressed the water quantity issue in his example, the focus here also includes water pollution. The aim of the paper is to analyze some of the provisions of the mechanisms in the field of international water lawthe Helsinki Rules and the UN Watercourses Conventionfor water quantity and quality aspects, as well as to provide an insight into the basin regarding these two aspects.

“Water security” has come to infiltrate prominent discourse in the international water and development community, and achieving it is often viewed as a new water sector target. Despite the levated status that the concept has increasingly acquired, understandings of the term are murky and quantification is rare. To promote a more tangible understanding of the concept, this paper develops an index for evaluating water security at a country level. The index is comprised of indicators in five components considered to be critical to the concept: (i) basic needs; (ii) agricultural production; (iii) the environment; (iv) risk management; and (v) independence. Achieving water security in these components can be considered necessary but insufficient criteria to measure the achievement of security in related areas such as health, livelihoods, and industry. After populating indicators with data from Asia-Pacific countries, results are interpreted and the viability of methods is discussed. This effort comprises an important first step for quantifying and assessing water security across countries, which should spur more concrete understanding of the term and discussion of its added value.

The uncontrolled release of sewage, industrial wastes, and agricultural run-off continue to affect Asia. Although many Asian countries are getting closer to meeting the improved sanitation targets, much of the waste remains untreated. Comprehensive databases are rarely available and national data indicate that the water quality situation is serious. However, there are many signs of hope. Water quality monitoring efforts are improving and several countries now have systems in place that could guide other nations in the region. The efforts of basin agencies, such as the Mekong River Commission, could lead the way to transboundary or even regional assessments. Many regulatory and economic options are being tested for pollution control, but institutional and social challenges remain, in particular those related to population growth and the various ways in which it is affecting water quality across the region.

This article describes the conceptual advantages of including economic incentives in the basket of policy alternatives available for motivating improvements in water quality. With a particular focus on Asia, we discuss the incentives available for encouraging reductions in point and nonpoint source pollutants in urban, rural, and peri-urban settings. Several countries in Asia are implementing some form of economic incentives, either directly, in the form of effluent taxes or subsidies, or in combination with regulatory measures that help to ensure water quality standards are achieved. We also describe the importance of institutional capacity and political will in support of economic incentives, and the increasing usefulness of incentive programmes as economies develop and expand. The discussion includes several examples of programmes in China and Thailand, along with observations from India, Japan, Korea, and the Philippines.

The Syrdarya River basin in Central Asia exhibits symptoms of scarcity because of growing competition between hydropower upstream and environment, cities and agriculture downstream. Different approaches to water management, based on water savings in agriculture could relieve the stress of competition, yet keep alive a vibrant agriculture. The Fergana Valley, a highly productive area within the upstream of the Syrdarya River, was analyzed to determine the water savings potential of agriculture. This paper used a water accounting procedure to identify both the scope for savings and the strategies to realize those gains. Signi cant nonproductive depletion of water at 6814164millionm3 (Mm3) was identi ed in the formof evaporation, ows to sinks and pollution. Thewater-saving potential is estimated at 2823Mm3 annually, which is about 10% of the total in ow into the area, through a range of practical approaches. This strategy would bring regional bene ts by reallocation of surplus winter ow from the upstream for summer use in the downstream.

A crop growth simulation model was used to study the impact of climate change for the period 20102050 on water productivity of rainfed rice. In general, the results suggest that water productivity of rainfed rice may increase significantly in the upper basin in Laos and Thailand and may decrease in the lower basin in Cambodia and Vietnam. Significant net increases in water productivity can be achieved by applying simple adaptation options such as shifting the planting dates, applying supplementary irrigation, and increasing fertilizer inputs.

While best practice in water management typically calls for the use of a basin-level approach, specific guidance in the absence of basin-level management is fairly scant. This paper reviews the experience of the Syr Darya basin to identify insights related to second best practices for water management at scales below the basin level. This paper first presents the causes for the disintegration of river basin management within the Syr Darya, which include both changes in operation of the Toktogul reservoir and rising water demands due to shifts in agricultural production and land ownership. Focus is then devoted specifically to small transboundary tributaries, where bottom-up cooperation has continued or reemerged in recent times. This paper concludes by highlighting the limitations to singular focus on sub-basins and tributaries, suggesting a balance between more intense cooperation and water control on tributaries and a loose overarching framework at the basin level.

The subject of change detection in climate time series has recently received greater interest as the perception of a human-induced change in the climate is now widely accepted. However, changes in regional precipitation and temperature remain uncertain. This study characterizes projected fine-scale changes in precipitation and temperature in continental Southeast Asia over the period 19602049. Twenty four annual variables were derived from grid-based daily precipitation and temperature produced by the PRECIS regional climate model under A2 and B2 scenarios. These time series, capturing precipitation intensities (classified as low, medium and high), seasonality and extremes in precipitation and temperature, were subjected to the modified Mann-Kendall trend detection test accounting for long-term persistence. The results indicate that temperature increases over the whole region with steeper trends in higher latitudes. Increases in annual precipitation, mainly restricted to Myanmar and the Gulf of Thailand, result from increases in high precipitation during the wet season. Decreases are observed mainly over the sea and caused by a reduction of low precipitation. Changes in the occurrence of the monsoon affect the low-latitude sea areas only. By showing that significant precipitation change are minor over land areas, these results challenge most of the previous studies that suggested significant precipitation changes over Southeast Asia, often mixing up multi-decadal variability and long-term unidirectional trends. Significant changes in precipitation and temperature may induce higher agricultural yields as steepest temperature and precipitation increases will predominantly affect the coldest and driest land areas of the region.

Development of the water resources of the Mekong Basin is the subject of intense debate both within the Mekong region and internationally. Water resources modelling is playing an increasingly important role in the debate, with significant effort in building integrated modelling platforms to describe the hydrological, ecological, social and economic impacts of water resource development. In the hydrological domain, a comprehensive set of models has been effective in building understanding of the system, and in identifying and describing the issues and trade-offs involved in basin-scale water planning. In the ecological and social domains, quantitative modelling has not progressed very far; geo-spatial analysis and qualitative frameworks remain the most commonly used tools. Economic models have been used to assess the costs and benefits of water resources development and to describe the trade-offs between different sectors and users. These analyses are likely to play an important role in the policy and planning debate, but are hampered by uncertainties in valuation of ecosystem services. Future efforts should focus on optimising the use of existing model platforms for the Mekong, including structured comparison of multiple hydrological models to quantify errors and identify an optimum set of modelling tools for different applications. A comprehensive research effort is needed to incorporate groundwater into hydrological models for regional planning. Options for social impact assessment should be reassessed before major investments are made in complex modelling platforms, and participatory social survey methods evaluated as part of an integrated assessment framework.

This article provides an institutional analysis of the Mekong River Commission and brings to light the institutional dissonances between regional and national decision-making landscapes in the Lower Mekong Basin. The current scalar disconnect between regional and national decision-making processes reflects how international donors and member country representatives obscure potential conflict/tension in transboundary water governance in the Mekong. From a scholarly perspective, it questions academic approaches that assume that the state is the sole or primary actor in international relations.

Irrigation performance assessments are important tools that irrigation service providers at various levels of the water management hierarchy can use for monitoring, benchmarking and self-improvement. Despite the recognition that irrigation performance can and should be assessed from a variety of perspectives, the perspectives of the users, farmers, have received surprising little attention. This is even more apparent given the widespread context of irrigation management transfer reforms throughout the world aiming at effective user empowerment through farmer-owned and driven water users associations. This paper attempts to partially fill this gap by exploring and sensitizing farmers’ views about irrigation service and related performance dimensions using qualitative research methods. Based on focus group discussions with a purposive sample of farmers from a range of water users’ associations in Central Asia and a grounded theory approach the study lays a conceptual foundation for future practical applications.

This paper presents algorithm for flood inundation mapping to understand seasonal and annual changes in the flood extent and in the context of emergency response. Time-series profiles of Land Surface Water Index (LSWI), Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and Normalized Difference Snow Index (NDSI) are obtained from MOD09 8-day composite time-series data (resolution 500m; time period: 2000-2011). The proposed algorithm was applied for MODIS data to produce time-series inundation maps for the ten annual flood season over the period from 2000 to 2011. The flood product has three classes as flood, mixed and long-term water bodies. The MODIS flood products were validated via comparison with ALOS AVINIR / PALSAR and Landsat TM using the flood fraction comparison method. Compared with the ALOS satellite data sets at a grid size of 10km the obtained RMSE range from 5.5 to 15 km2 and the determination coefficients range from 0.72 to 0.97. The spatial characteristics of the estimated early, peak and late and duration of inundation cycle were also determined for the period from 2000 to 2011. There are clear contracts in the distribution of the estimated flood duration of inundation cycles between large-scale floods (2008-2010) and medium and small-scale floods (2002 and 2004). Examples on the analysis of spatial extent and temporal pattern of flood-inundated areas are of prime importance for the mitigation of floods. The generic approach can be used to quantify the damage caused by floods, since floods have been increasing each year resulting in the loss of lives, property and agricultural production.

Agriculture is at the forefront of the development objectives of the republics of Central Asia (CA). Since independence in 1991, these countries have undergone transitions from being centrally planned economies to market-oriented systems, which did not include the creation of agricultural extension systems. This paper provides information on the current status of the agricultural extension systems in CA with special reference to Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. We reviewed the existing extension strategies, donor- and state-driven initiatives to revitalize the agricultural extension systems, informal linkages that nongovernmental organizations play in helping a limited number of farmers, and provided recommendations on ways to further improve the agricultural extension services in CA. The information related to each country was analyzed separately. This is because, after independence, each republic in CA had initiated their agricultural reforms with specific objectives and has now established their unique agricultural systems that differ contextually. However, due to having the same history and agricultural system that existed during the Soviet times, we tried to give a historical perspective to the unified agricultural extension system that existed before independence.

The aim of the research project is to lift Afghanistan out of the identified knowledge gap on its water resources and therefore enable Afghanistan to remove her barrier to sustainable water resource development and management in the Amu Darya basin. At the same time it is anticipated to provide transparency of the potential impact of water resource development plans as well as of on-going projects to downstream riparian states as well as the donor community which so far seems to take an administrative rather than a resource boundary approach.The duration of the project is anticipated to be 3 years. Because of its international position IWMI Central Asia will take the lead in data generation and analysis and will collaborate with research and implementing agencies in Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.

In recent years, great emphasis has been placed on the need to improve the management of the environmental and social impacts of large dams. This is particularly important in the Mekong River Basin where the construction of a large number of new dams are planned and yet a large proportion of the population depend on fisheries and other natural resources, which may be adversely affected by their construction. The environmental and consequent social impacts of large dams are often complex and extremely difficult to predict. Dam planners and operators often have to consider a huge number of factors and often conflicting objectives, which makes decision making difficult. In such situations, computer models that can be used to simulate and optimize dam operations are a useful tool. However, to date, most models have focused on the physical aspects of systems and rarely (if ever) explicitly incorporate environmental and social issues. This report presents a brief review of different models and their application to water resource management, both in the Mekong and elsewhere and outlines a modelling strategy for the MK1 project.

The environmental services related with agricultural water are increasingly acknowledged as a critical factor for farming development in South Asia. However, little attention is given to the demand side linked with the preservation of these services. To this aim, we conduct a stated preference approach for the elicitation of farmers’ preferences towards the economic value rendered to environmental services related with agricultural water. The research is based on an extensive survey in selected clusters of India, Pakistan and Nepal. The case studies are situated along Indo-Gangetic basin due to more evidential linkages between environmental services and irrigation. The findings depict a highly agreeable stance of Indian and Nepalese farmers for the contribution to environmental services while the majority of Pakistani are opposed to such a contribution. However, they almost all agree on the type of the assessment approach while the agreeable Pakistanis offer the highest contributions. The association of the economic assessment with key wealth indicators and socio-demographic elements depicts the high significance of household size.

The Indo-Gangetic Basin encompasses most of the fertile landholdings in South Asia. However, low agricultural productivity is observed in the four riparian countries - India, Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh - by nailing down rural welfare. Accusations are directed at the inability of water supply sector to ensure high productivity rates and security of subsistence farmers. However, little is known about the demand side and farmers’ perceptions towards the effects of water use on agricultural productivity. To this aim, we conduct an economic assessment through a stated preference approach on crucial institutional and environmental related parameters of agricultural water that could enhance productivity potential. Also, vital socio-demographic elements are examined as influential factors. The analysis is based on an extensive research survey accomplished in selected clusters along the Indo-Gangetic Basin.

Water use and landholding factors are widely acknowledged as major determinants of agricultural development in agrarian regions of the Indo-Gangetic basin (IGB). High attention is mainly given to irrigation policy while land is often apprehended through soil productivity aspects. However, the nexus between land scale and water consumption in respect to the economic implications of agricultural development is poorly elaborated. To this aim, this paper examines the economic effects of water use and landholding scale to farming in agricultural communities of IGB area. The research is based on an extensive survey conducted in representative areas of Pakistan, India and Nepal situated along the IGB basin. The results signify that the economic viability of marginal and small landholders and water users is threatened when the study focuses on the land scaling effects to farming. Practical recommendations towards the rescheduling of irrigation and land use policies are introduced.

The division of Central Asia into several independent states, and the transition from the centrally planned economy to a market economy in the majority of those states, affected all sectors and all social levels in the region. One such example is irrigation. Centrally planned and financed from Moscow, on-farm irrigation systems were managed by collective farms. The process of decentralization through the dismantling of collective farms led to a restructuring of services and infrastructure throughout Central Asia. Water users associations (WUAs) have been established to transfer on-farm irrigation management to farmers throughout the region, including Uzbekistan. Many women in Uzbekistan actively participate in farming activities, so their role in the on-farm irrigation restructuring process is important. Yet, the findings from this study suggest that participation of women is very limited in WUAs as very few women are registered as land owners. Because of high levels of migration by men to other countries, farm activities are mostly carried out by women. Despite this, womens decision-making power within their farms is limited.

Variability in water cycles driven by climate change is considered likely to impact rice production in the near future. Rice is the main staple food for the population in the lower Mekong Basin and the demand for food is expected to grow due to increase in population. This paper examines the impact of climate change on rice production in the lower Mekong Basin, evaluates some widely used adaptation options, and analyses their implications for overall food security by 2050. Climate change data used in the study are the future climate projection for two IPCC SRES scenarios, A2 and B2, based on ECHAM4 General Circulation Model downscaled to the Mekong region using the PRECIS (Providing Regional Climates for Impact Studies) system. In general, the results suggest that yield of rainfed rice may increase significantly in the upper part of the basin in Laos and Thailand and may decrease in the lower part of the basin in Cambodia and Vietnam. Irrigated rice may not be affected by climate change if increased irrigation requirements are met. Negative impact on the yield of rainfed rice can be offset and net increase in yield can be achieved by applying widely used adaptation options such as changing planting date, supplementary irrigation and increased fertilizer input. Analysis of the projected production, considering population growth by 2050, suggests that food security of the basin is unlikely to be threatened by the increased population and climate change, excluding extreme events such as sea level rise and cyclones.

Purpose The paper seeks to examine the impact of social exclusion on individuals’ propensity to be employed and how, if employed, social exclusion affects individuals’ perceived job insecurity and the likelihood of being covered by social insurance in their jobs.Design/methodology/approach Using the United Nations Development Program/United Nations Children Fund 2009 survey data from Eastern Europe and Central Asia, the paper employs comprehensive econometric methods that overcome challenges posed by endogeneity of social exclusion in labour market outcomes, self-selection into employment, and the interdependency between perceptions of job security and social insurance coverage.Findings Results suggest that socially excluded individuals face hurdles in securing jobs and exhibit higher risk of job loss. Further, results suggest that a holistic educational policy could help promote social inclusion.Practical implications Formulation of policies aimed at promoting social inclusion and improved labour market outcomes should not be done in isolation; rather they should be based on a holistic understanding of the multi-faceted nature of social exclusion.Originality/value The originality of the analysis is that it takes into account the multi-dimensional nature of social exclusion by treating social exclusion as an outcome of a diverse set of an individual’s socio-economic characteristics that ultimately shape the way they feel about their exclusion or inclusion in their societies. This gives an indication of the types of people that are socially excluded and form the group for which a further investigation of labour market outcomes is conducted.

In this article the authors assess the empirical challenges of estimating the costs and benefits of using wastewater in agriculture. The wide variation in the characteristics of wastewater irrigation complicates efforts to estimate costs and benefits, and to transfer such estimates across locations. They examine wastewater use in four countries in Africa and Asia, where research has been conducted for many years. They find a significant patchwork of results, but no satisfying overall assessment. The authors suggest focusing on the cost-effectiveness of interventions for risk reduction, rather than economic analyses of the full range of costs and benefits of using wastewater in agriculture.

This article explores the cooperation after independence on four Central Asian transboundary rivers. The paper shows that, even though the Central Asian states agreed in 1992 to continue with the basic water-sharing principles, new agreements had to be made. New agreements were only made in basins with large-scale water-control infrastructure, which have transboundary significance or are transboundary themselves. The inequitable water allocation between the riparian states has continued and has not triggered new agreements.

It is well known that whilst wetlands deliver a wide range of services vital for human well-being, they are being rapidly degraded and lost. Losses tend to be higher where human populations are increasing most and demands for economic development are greatest. Multidisciplinary management approaches that integrate conservation and development objectives in wetlands are therefore urgently requested for by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. This paper describes the evaluation of 10 wetland management case studies from Asia, Africa and South America that adopted such an integrated approach. The evaluation assessed the outcomes of these integrated initiatives to identify conditions and processes for linking conservation and poverty reduction objectives in wetlands. The findings are also compared with other assessments of integrated approaches, particularly in terms of their effectiveness in optimizing conservation and poverty reduction outcomes. The results from our studies suggest an ongoing evolution of such integrated interventions, which also implies cycles of learning from past mistakes. Overall, our results highlight the significant variation between wetlands in types and quantities of services they provide and emphasize the need to view many ecological issues as social challenges for equitable solutions to both wetlands and people. The analysis further shows that the positive on-ground results owe much to the interdisciplinary problem analysis, whereby interventions can move from treating symptoms to addressing root causes. While no blueprint emerged on how to successfully integrate conservation and poverty reduction in wetlands, important lessons for future interventions were drawn.

In this article the authors assess the potential impacts of projected climate change on water, livelihoods and food security in the Basin Focal Project basins. The authors consider expected change within the context of recently observed climate variability in the basins to better understand the potential impact of expected change and the options available for adaptation. They use multi-global circulation model climate projections for the AR4 SRES A2a scenario, downscaled and extracted for each basin. They nd significant differences in the impacts (both positive and negative impacts) of climate change, between and within basins, but also nd large-scale uncertainty between climate models in the impact that is projected.

This article summarizes the results of water productivity assessment in 10 river basins across Asia, Africa and South America, representing a range of agro-climatic and socio-economic conditions. Intensive farming in the Asian basins gives much greater agricultural outputs and higher water productivity. Largely subsistence agriculture in Africa has significantly lower water productivity. There is very high intra-basin variability, which is attributed mainly to lack of inputs, and poor water and crop management. Closing gaps between “bright spots” and the poorly performing areas are the major tasks for better food security and improved livelihoods, which have to be balanced with environmental sustainability.

The topography of Ganges basin (GB) is much contrasted with upstream steep mountainous region of the Himalayas and downstream large fertile plains in eastern India and Bangladesh. The Himalays are partly covered by snow and glaciers that seasonally release water to the river network of GB and provide cushion against the annual fluctuations. The contribution from the glaciers to the streamflows is supposed to be significant although spatilly distributed quantification is unavailable. Moreover, there is uncertainity on the impact of climate change on glaciers and the resultant streamflows. We set up an application of the Water Evaluation and Planning (WEAP)model which contained an experimental glaciers module that accounts for snow and glaciers processes in the GB. The model also examined the possible impacts of an increase in temperature of +1, +2 or +3 degree Celsius over 20 years of the simulation period (1982-2002). The average annual stream flows in the GB that comes from melting of snow and ice in glaciated areas is significant (60-75%) in the Upper Ganga and in the Nepalese sub-basins. The share, however, reduces significantly further downstream, falling to about 19% at Farakka as flows from glaciated areas are diluted by streamflows generated by rainfall/ runoff processes. Climate change-induced rise in temperature logically increases the quantity of snow and ice that melts in glaciated areas , causing an augmentation of streamflows. However, this impact decreases from upstream ( +8% to +26% at Tehri Dam in Uttaranchal in India) to downstream (+1% to +4% at Farakka in West Bengal). Such increases in streamflows may create flood events more frequently or of higher magnitude in the Upper Ganga or in the mountainous sub-basins. In terms of water use, most of the extra water from glaciated areas do not flow when water is most required i.e. during the lean flow winter and early summer season. Potential strategy to exploit this additional water may include construction of new dams/ reservoir storages that could be used locally or within the transboundary agreements or to capture this extra water just at the end of the dry season (April-June) when flows from glaciated areas become noticeable. Enhancing the development of groundwater in the basin (from the present low level of ~ 30 per cent) through managed aquifer recharge and other suitable options shall be an equally viable option. The riparian states within India and India-Nepal- Bangladesh may harness this opportunity to alleviate physical water scarcity and transboundary water conflicts.

Facing competition for limited water resources with domestic, industrial, hydropower and environmental uses, agriculture has to adapt to produce more food with less water. This paper proposes to apply water accounting procedure to identify the scope for water productivity improvement. The Fergana Valley, a highly productive area within the upstream of the Syrdarya River Basin, was selected to examine the proposed procedure. Significant non-productive depletions of water as evaporation at 31-34% of the available water were identified in the Fergana Valley. There is also flow to sinks and pollution in the downstream at 1-5% of the gross inflow due to the changes of the river flow regime, its quantity and quality, caused by the return flow from the irrigated land and the winter hydropower releases from the upstream. Total non-productive depletions of water at 4,200-5,200 million m3 (Mm3) were identified in the form of evaporation, flows to sinks, and pollution. Proper water saving technologies to reduce non-productive depletions will improve water productivity in the Fergana Valley and increase water availability for the downstream water uses.

Land degradation of agricultural areas in Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, specifically due to soil salinization, has resulted in significant declines in agricultural productivity. This study builds upon previous limited work on ‘Bright Spots’ by focusing on specific farming enterprises in the two target countries. The objective of this study was to identify factors that contributed to the enhanced performance of ‘Bright Spots’ in each of the target countries and based on this evaluation assess possible options for expansion and out-scaling of ‘Bright Spots’ to larger areas. The analysis confirms that while the resource endowment in terms of quality of land was almost identical for both the ‘Bright Spots’ and Control objects studied, the performance of the former was superior with respect to productivity and profitability. An analysis of biophysical and economic indicators of ‘Bright Spot’ farms in Uzbekistan indicated that the profitability of cotton production was predominantly dependent on inputs to the production system that had a significant impact on groundwater depth below the soil surface. In order to out-scale ‘Bright Spots’ innovative approaches in addressing existing knowledge gaps that link the products of research, and in this case ‘induce innovation’, with the majority of beneficiaries are required. This may take the form of creating linkages between farmers, researchers and markets through the formation of learning alliances. In addition, the development of enabling policies that address issues related to inequitable access to land and resources that would enable farmers to invest in rehabilitation is required. The provision of incentives which trigger private investment in rehabilitation would potentially stimulate individuals into addressing resource degradation. This would require access to financial instruments to enable investment to take place.

In Southeast Asia, agricultural production is highly constraint by climate cycles typically characterized by the regular alternation of the wet and dry seasons, and by unpredictable droughts or rain storms. For hundreds of decades, farmers have adapted to these climate vagaries by growing various cultivars, mainly during the rainy season, with different cropping calendars, thus limiting the risk of total agricultural losses in the case of extreme events. In response to increased population and food demand, cropped land and inhabited zones are expanding to flood- and drought prone areas, resulting in higher frequency of flood and drought related damages. Climate change may magnify the severity of agricultural losses with more contrasted seasons and more extreme climate events (longest droughts and flashier floods). Communities living in flood and drought prone areas are generally the poorest and therefore the most vulnerable to natural disasters. Reducing the vulnerability of these people to the negative impacts of floods and droughts should improve their standard of living and assist them to climb out of poverty. One solution consists in forecasting and characterizing extreme climate events through the use of “early warning systems” and “monitoring tools”, giving time for the population to take appropriate actions in order to minimize damages and possible casualties. The Flood Management and Mitigation Center of the Mekong River Commission is a good example of successful early warning system although some improvements, especially at the action/local levels are required. The monitoring of droughts and the prevention of their negative effects on agricultural yields is more difficult to implement as droughts are occurring at large spatial scales, affecting the society as a whole. However, recent progresses in remote sensing technologies and telecommunication systems are promising at the conditions that institutional and management supports strengthen, especially when trans-boundary coordination is required.

Irrigation management transfer and participatory irrigation management (IMT/PIM) have remained buzz words in the irrigation sector for around 30 years now. However, in spite of years of implementation and hundreds of documented case studies, evidence of impact of IMT/PIM has at best remained sketchy due to lack of comprehensive assessment that goes beyond mere descriptive case studies. The purpose of this paper is to fill in some of the gaps left in the previous reviews through a meta analysis of 108 case studies of IMT/PIM from 20 countries in Asia. This makes it one of the most comprehensive reviews undertaken so far. Based on systematic review of these case studies, it is argued that successful cooperative action in large scale public irrigation systems takes place under a set of very context specific and process intensive conditions conditions that are difficult and costly, if not impossible to replicate elsewhere. To take it a step further, it is also argued that lack of replicability of successful cases of IMT is not an issue of poor implementation or enabling conditions, as it is generally thought, but is related to conceptual weakness of the IMT model itself and therefore there is a need for a paradigm shift in the way publicly owned irrigation systems are managed.

There is growing concern about the potential effects of climate change on the natural resources of the Lower Mekong River Basin (LMB). It is therefore no surprise that climate change adaptation has become one of the focal points of current development discussions in the region. Here we examine the impact of climate change on the rice cultivation of the LMB and its consequences for overall food security and possible adaptation options. Rice is the main staple food for the population and the demand for food is expected to grow due to increase in population. Variability in water cycle driven by climate change is considered likely to impact rice production in the near future. Thus, rice cultivation faces greatly increased demands for food on the one hand, and several threats to production due to climate change on the other. Against this background, it is important to examine the adaptation options to reduce the vulnerability of Mekong food security to impact of climate change and population growth.We have assessed the impact on the productivity of rice grown in the basin using a crop simulation model AquaCrop. In general, the results suggest that productivity of main rainfed rice, predominant crop in the basin, may increase significantly in the upper part of the basin in Laos and Thailand and may decrease in the lower part of the basin in Cambodia and Vietnam. Irrigated rice may not be affected by climate change if increased irrigation requirements are met. We have tested widely used adaptation strategies such as shifting planting date, supplementary irrigation and reduction of fertility stress and found that negative impact on the yield can be offset and net increase in yield can be achieved. Hence food security of the basin is unlikely to be threatened by the increased population or climate change.

This paper addresses the need for agricultural water storage in developing countries. Rainfall variability is an important factor in development and translates directly into a need for water storage. In many places rainfall variability is likely to be amplified (even where the total amount of rain increases) as a result of climate change. If planned and managed correctly, various forms of water storage can increase water security and agricultural productivity thereby contributing to improved livelihoods and reduced rural poverty. However, ill-conceived water storage is a waste of financial resources and, rather than mitigate, may aggravate negative climate change impacts. Systems that combine complementary storage options are likely to be more adaptable and acceptable than those based on a single storage type. More systematic planning and management is required to avoid the mistakes of the past and to ensure more effective and suitable storage systems for the future.

Catchment water yields control the availability of the water resource and the levels of flood risk. With the demographic rise that is underway in the developing world, inter-dependencies between populations and flow variability become higher. A better management of watersheds, from local to regional levels, is therefore required. The prerequisite for a sound catchment water management is a clear understanding of the drivers of flow variability, in relation to four main ranges of controlling factors, namely i/ the climate (rainfall-runoff relationship), ii/ water infrastructures (i.e. river flow regulated by hydropower dams), iii/ water withdrawals mainly for irrigation and iv/ land cover changes. The hydrological impacts of the first three categories of controlling factors are relatively easy to assess, as demonstrated by previous modeling efforts, noticeably in the Mekong Basin. In contrast, the way land-cover changes alter catchments’ runoff responses is less obvious and still subject to controversy. The most reliable facts, which seem to be widely and independently acknowledged, are that deforestation, via the reduction of evapotranspiration, increases annual basin water yield, while afforestation results, over the long term, in opposite trends. These relationships were established based on analyses of hundreds of paired catchments whose surface areas rarely exceed 2 km2. The impact of land cover change on seasonal flows not only depends on evapotranspiration rates but also on soil properties such as permeability and water storage capacity, and rainfall intensities. For example, in very particular conditions, deforestation may reduce infiltration which, if not offset by a reduction in evapotranspiration, may result in reduced low flows during the dry season. For extreme flood events, the impact of reforestation may become imperceptible as over such short periods, evapotranspiration does not control the runoff response. These two examples indicate that, although deforestation and reforestation generally increases and decreases, respectively, low flows and flood peaks, the hydrological impacts of land cover changes do not follow a general rule as they depend on a complex convolution of climatic, edaphic and biological factors. However, a recent study undertaken in northern Laos in a 0.7 km2 headwater catchment under shifting cultivation corroborates most of previous results observed in other parts of the world: the development of fallow vegetation reduces groundwater recharge, leading to a drop in annual stream flow due to a decrease in wet and dry season base-flow. Studies on the hydrological impact of land cover change over large catchments (i.e. gt; 1000km2) are extremely rare, in comparison with the abundance of small-scale studies. This is explained by several facts: over large areas, the heterogeneity of land covers combined with the spatial variability of climate compounds the attribution of observed hydrological changes; counteracting ch

Recently, the application of excreta-based fertilizers has attracted attention due to the strongly increasing prices of chemically produced fertilizers. Faecal sludge from on-site sanitation systems is rich in nutrients and organic matter, constituents which contribute to replenishing the humus layer and soil nutrient reservoir and to improving soil structure and water-holding capacity. Hence, it represents an important resource for enhancing soil productivity on a sustainable basis. However, there is little in the scientific literature about the performance of treatment technology allowing recovery of nutrient resources from human waste. This paper reviews the state of knowledge of different processes that have been applied worldwide. Their pathogen removal efficiency as well as nutrient and biosolids recovery performances are assessed. The chapter outlines the gaps in research for further development.

The report aims to provide critical input to the Mekong River Commission’s (MRC) regional Climate Change and Adaptation Initiative (CCAI) which was launched shortly after the formulation of this project. The CCAI is a collaborative regional initiative designed to address the shared climate change adaptation challenges of LMB countries in response to the potential effects of climate change on the socio-economic characteristics and natural resources of the LMB region. MRC has identified need for a more informed understanding of the potential impacts from climate change. To contribute to this aim, the purpose of this report is: 1. To present the framework of climate change analysis and its application to the Basin Development Plan (BDP) Scenarios; 2. To present the results from the application of the Decision Support Framework (DSF) models of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) in order to analyse the impacts of climate change and selected BDP Scenarios on flow regimes; 3. To present climate change impacts on floods and fisheries in the LMB; 4. To present the impact of climate change on the productivity of major crops grown in the basin and their consequences on the overall food security of the basin considering future population growth. 5. To present the results of applying simple adaptation strategies related to agriculture and food security; and 6. To determine further studies necessary to identify suitable adaptation strategies for dealing with such impacts.

This paper aims to summarise in detail the results of the analysis under the CSIRO-MRC project of quot;Reducing vulnerability of water resources, people and the environment in the Mekong Basin to climate change impactsquot; by providing the basic findings on the impacts of climate change and development on the Mekong River flow regimes. The paper aims: To present the framework of climate change analysis and its application to the BDP Scenarios; To present the results from the application of the DSF models of the Mekong River Commission (MRC) in order to analyse the impacts of climate change and selected BDP Scenarios on flow regimes; To determine further studies necessary to identify suitable adaptation strategies for dealing with such impacts. The framework of the climate change scenario analysis is introduced in Chapter 2. A brief introduction to the DSF is presented in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 presents the processing of the PRECIS data for the provision of climate inputs for the analysis. The results of model runs for the Baseline Scenario with observed and PRECIS data are presented in Chapter 5. Changes in the flow regime due to both development and climate change are discussed in Chapter 6. Finally, conclusions and recommendations for further studies are presented in Chapter 7.

In many places, growing population, in conjunction with efforts to increase food security, is escalating pressure to expand agriculture within wetlands. The environmental impact of wetland agriculture can have profound social and economic repercussions for people dependent on ecosystem services other than those provided directly by agriculture. If wetlands are not used sustainably, the functions which support agriculture, as well as other food security and ecosystem services, are undermined. This report synthesizes findings from multidisciplinary studies conducted into sustainable wetland agriculture by IWMI and partners in Africa and Asia. It highlights the value of wetland agriculture for poverty reduction as well as the need for more systematic planning that takes into account trade-offs in the multiple services that wetlands provide.

The impacts of climate change on agriculture and food production in Southeast Asia will be largely mediated through water, but climate is only one driver of change. Water resources in the region will be shaped by a complex mixture of social, economic and environmental factors. This report reviews the current status and trends in water management in the Greater Mekong Subregion; assesses likely impacts of climate change on water resources to 2050; examines water management strategies in the context of climate and other changes; and identifies priority actions for governments and communities to improve resilience of the water sector and safeguard food production.

Report submitted to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) under the project, “Comparative assessment of water usage and impacts arising from biofuel projects in South East Asian Countries”, commissioned by the Letter of Agreement No LOA/RAP/2009/38.Thailand and Malaysia are two south East Asian countries with rapidly growing biofuel demand. Increasing use of biofuel envisages reducing dependence of petroleum products for transport and mitigating environmental impacts by reducing carbon emissions. It also expects to contribute to rural development and poverty reduction. However, the impacts of expanding production of feedstock for biofuel on water supply are not well understood. This paper assesses the water footprints and impacts of sugarcane molasses and cassava based bioethanol in Thailand, and palm oil based biodiesel in Malaysia. The water footprint of a commodity or service is the water depleted in its life cycle of its production or consumption.The total water footprints of sugarcane molasses and cassava bioethanol production in Thailand are estimated to be 1,646 and 2,304 m3/tonne, respectively, and of palm oil biodiesel in Malaysia is 3,730 m3/tonne. However, the contributions from irrigation are only a small fraction --9.0, 0.7 and 0.3%-- of the total water footprints of molasses and cassava bioethanol, and palm oil biodiesel respectively. In terms of irrigation water use,cassava is a better feedstock for bioethanol production than sugarcane molasses.In Thailand, the total annual irrigation water footprints in bioethanol production --54 million m3 (mcm) for molasses and 15 mcm for cassava-- is only 0.02% of the total renewable water resources. In Malaysia, total annual irrigation water footprint of palm oil biodiesel production is only 0.001% of the total renewable water resources. A significant spatial variation of irrigation water footprints of molasses based ethanol exists across provinces in Thailand, indicating potential for reducing water footprints.The total irrigation water footprints in biofuel production in the future in both countries will also be negligible in comparison to total water availability. However, the impact of wastewater generated in the production processes can have significant impacts on quality of local water resources. A part of the waste water, called ‘spent wash’, is applied as fertilizer, and over use of it can affect soil and neighboring water resources. The proposed plans on biofuel production in the future can generate more ‘spent wash’ than that can be used in crop fields as fertilizer. Spent wash has found to have high PH value, temperature, biological and chemical oxygen contents etc. The usual practice of storing spent wash in a pond for a long period near a plant can have detrimental impact on soil, streams’ and groundwater quality.In sum, this study concludes that from the perspective of quantity of irrigation water use, the increasing biofuel production does not pose a major problem in Thailand

This paper critically examines the Helsinki Rules (1966), the United Nations Convention (1997) and the Berlin Rules (2004), looking at their emphasis on the principle either of equitable utilization or of doing no harm and analysing the effect of these principles on late developers within a river basin. The analysis reveals that these rules increasingly favour first developers. Today, late developers have even less incentive to subscribe to these rules, but instead must either utilize their own dominance or have a powerful ally to develop their water resources. Given the Millennium Development Goals, the existing recommendations on the sharing of international rivers should be revised so as not to favour the early developers.

Water scarcity and the predicted impact of climate change will necessitate the use of alternate available water resources in agriculture, such as saline water, to narrow the gap between demand and supply of freshwater. Saline water, in combination with freshwater or alone, is used to irrigate cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) in Central Asia in summer when there are often severe freshwater shortages. The use of saline water without appropriate management can result in the accumulation of salts in the root zone with associated negative impacts on crop productivity. The accumulation of salts in surface soil layers can be managed by reducing evaporation from the soil surface. A 3-year field study on a saline soil (ECe = 13.9 dSm-1; SAR = 3.1) in the Syr-Darya River Basin of Uzbekistan was undertaken to evaluate the effects of wheat straw mulching on alternate irrigation furrows (1.5 t ha-1) and different levels of irrigation water salinity (4.0, 6.2, and 8.3 dSm-1) on soil salinity and sodicity dynamics, cotton yield, and crop water productivity. Compared to the pre-experiment status in 2005, the average increase in salinity in the upper 0.15mlayer of post-cotton 2007 soil under mulching treatments was significantly less than the non-mulching treatments. On average, there was a 20% increase in surface soil salinity of the nonmulching treatments compared to the mulching treatments. These treatment differences were less with increasing soil depth. Similar trends were observed with respect to changes in soil SAR in the top soil and across the soil profile. Cotton yield and water productivity under mulching treatments were significantly greater than non-mulched treatments at a given irrigation water salinity level. In addition, cotton yields were up to 800 kg ha-1 higher and crop water productivity (lint + seed) up to 0.47 kgm-3 greater in the mulching treatments than the farmers’ managed fields with conventional practices in the same region. These results suggest that by using appropriate combinations of water quality and mulching, there could be substantial increase in crop yield and water productivity resulting in water savings of up to 0.5m3 for each kg of cotton produced. When translated on a broader scale, such water savings are significant in a region where freshwater supplies are constrained and salt-induced water quality deterioration is widespread.

The Red River (China/Vietnam, A=155,000 km²) is a typical humid tropics river originating from the mountainous area of Yunnan Province in China. Based on information on daily discharge (Q) and suspended particulate matter (SPM) concentration between 19602008 for the SonTay gauging station (outlet of the River and entry to the Delta) provided by the National Institute IMHE-MONRE, the mean annual SPM flux was estimated at 90 Mt/yr, corresponding to a sediment yield of 600 t/km²/yr. The temporal variability of annual SPM fluxes (ranging from 24 to 200 Mt/yr) is strongly related to the interannual hydrological conditions. However, some years of high water flow were not associated with high sediment fluxes, especially after 1989 when the HoaBinh dam came into operation. Therefore, the median discharge pre- (3389 m3/s) and post 1989 (3495 m3/s) are similar indicating there was little or no change between both periods. Sediment rating curves (power law-type; SPM=aQb) were fitted for both periods (19601989; 19902008). The analysis of the pre- and post-1989 sediment rating parameters (a, b) suggests a downshift of b-parameter values after 1989, attributed to a decrease of the sediment supply due to the commissioning of the HoaBinh dam. A single sediment rating curve derived from 19601989 data was used to simulate the annual variability of former sediment delivery, generating excellent cumulative flux estimates (error ~1%). In contrast, applying the same rating curve to the 19902008 data resulted in systematic and substantial (up to 109%) overestimation. This suggests that the HoaBinh dam reduces annual SPM delivery to the delta by half, implying important metal/metalloid storage behind the HoaBinh dam.

The Indochinese section of the Mekong Basin has been subjected to major environmental disturbances over the last half century. The Vietnam War is invoked as a central explanation for the extensive deforestation in specific areas while conflictinduced exoduses caused the abandonment of cultivated lands, followed by forest regeneration. Although the socio-economical consequences of these episodes have been analysed, their hydrological impacts remain unknown. This paper investigates hydrological changes in two catchments of the lower Mekong Basin that were either heavily bombed (in southern Laos) or depopulated (in northern Laos). This analysis is based on the widely and independently recognized fact that vegetation, via evapotranspiration, is a central driver of basin water yield. The analysis of the most complete Vietnam War air mission database and of available hydro-meteorological data over the period 19602004 reveals a sharp runoff increase in the southern catchment when bombing climaxed in the early 1970s while no hydrological change is observed in the northern catchment over the same period. From 1995 onwards, the northern and southern catchment’s runoff productions are significantly lower and higher than in the pre-war conditions, respectively. Although causalities could not be ascertained because of data limitations, these short- and long-term hydrological shifts were found to be consistent, in terms of occurrence, spatial distribution and magnitude, with the expected changes in the vegetation cover, either denser in the north (in response to abandonment of cultivated lands) or sparser in the south (as a result of bomb-induced deforestation and soil degradations).

Focus group discussions and a modeling approach were applied to determine policy and regulatory refinements for current water allocation practices in Kyrgyzstan. Lessons from the Lower Colorado River basin, Texas and New South Wales, Australia were taken into consideration. The paper analyzes the impact of adopting some of these interventions within the socio-environmental context that currently prevails in Kyrgyzstan. The optimization model for water distribution at the river-basin scale was developed using GAMS 2.25 software. Application of the model to the Akbura River basin indicated efficiencies in the proposed institutional rules especially in low water years.

The Syrdarya river is an example of a transboundary basin with contradictory water use requirements between its upstream and downstream parts. Since the winter of 199293, the operational regime of the upstream Toktogul reservoir on the Naryn river the main tributary of the Syrdarya has shifted from irrigation to hydropower generation mode. This significantly increased winter flow and reduced summer flowdownstream of the reservoir. Consequently, excessive winterflowis diverted to the saline depression called Arnasai, while water for summer irrigation is lacking. This study suggests to store the excessive winter flows temporarily in the upstream aquifers of the Fergana valley and to use it subsequently for irrigation in summer. It is estimated that groundwater development for irrigation could be practiced on one-third of the irrigated land of the valley, and conjunctive use of groundwater and canal water on another third; the rest will remain under canal irrigation. This strategy will lower the groundwater table and create aquifer capacity for temporal storage of excessive water“water banking”. This use of the term is only one of many concepts to which “water banking” or “groundwater banking” is applied. In this paper, the term is applied for temporary storing of river flow in subsurface aquifers. Pilot modeling studies for the Sokh aquifer one of the 18 aquifers of the Fergana valley supported that this strategy is a feasible solution for the upstreamdownstream issues in the Syrdarya river basin. Field studies of water banking are required to determine the scale of adoption of the proposed strategy for each aquifer of the Fergana valley.

Quantitative estimates of the hydrologic effects of climate change are essential for understanding and solving potential transboundary water conflicts in the Zerafshan river basin, Central Asia. This paper introduces an identification of runoff generation processes and a detection of changes in hydrological regimes supporting MannKendall trend analysis for streamflows. By this, the effective available and future water resources are identified for the Zerafshan. The results for the subbasins in the upper Zerafshan and for the reference station at the upper catchment outlet indicate that glacier melt is the most significant component of river runoff. The MannKendall trend analysis confirms the regime analysis with the shift in the seasonality of the discharge. Furthermore, the results of the KendallTheil Robust Line for predicted long-term discharge trends show a decreasing annual discharge. The experience gained during this study emphasizes the fact that the summer flood, urgently required for the large irrigation projects downstream in Uzbekistan, is reduced and more water will be available in spring. Additionally, following the estimation of future discharges in 50 and 100 years the hydrological changes are affecting the seasonal water availability for irrigation. This analysis highlighted that water availability is decreasing and the timing of availability is changing. Hence, there will be more competition between upstream Tajikistan and downstream Uzbekistan. Planned projects within the basin might have to be reconsidered and the changed scenario of water availability needs to be properly taken into account for long-term basin scale water management.

Climate change will affect water supplies in south Asia, where high-intensity floods and droughts are expected in the future. Increasing water storage is a key adaptation strategy, and the experience of irrigation tanks illustrates both the potential and challenges of this adaptation response. Although there are over 2,08,000 tanks in India, irrigating about 2.3 million hectares in 2000-01, the net area irrigated by tanks declined by 29% between 1990-91 and 2000-01 and by 32% between 2001 and 2008. This paper reviews the challenges faced by tank irrigation and examines options for improving their performance revenue mobilisation through multiple use of tanks, augmenting groundwater resources in the tanks, integrating social forestry and desilting, and tank modernisation.

This paper analyses groundwater resources use and management in the socio-economic context of the Amu Darya River Basin which covers a part of the following landlocked Central Asian countries: Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. These agrarian nations for sustaining their vital agricultural productions started to use groundwater during the recent drought years (19982001) because of its relatively good quality and quantity and as an alternative to highly mineralized surface waters. Present extent of groundwater resources use is discussed with consideration to their reserves, quality, and institutional management and transboundary aspects within the basin. After the collapse of the centralized water resources management system and infrastructure of the former Soviet Union, new underdeveloped systems are being practiced over the whole Amu Darya River Basin. The critical situation of groundwater management in Afghanistan is also discussed. This work attempts to document the management and use of groundwater in the Amu Darya Basin and present time management realities, with fragmented and weak national and regional regulation on groundwater. Special attention is given to groundwater resources in irrigated agriculture, which increased use in all countries of the basin is due to quick access to underground resources and relatively good quality and quantity.

Irrigated agriculture in Central Asia can only be developed through increase of crop yields and reduction of water volumes applied per unit of agricultural production. Thus to improve agricultural production, proper agronomic measures and irrigation schedules have to be developed considering local conditions. To assess existing water productivity, 9 farms have been selected along South Fergana Canal. A Soil-Water-Air-Plant (SWAP) model has been applied for the same fields to predict potential water productivity.

This paper assesses the agricultural water consumption and productivity of the predominant crop paddy rice and wheat for the Indo-Gangetic river basin (IGB) in South Asia. A new approach was adopted in the study to integrate census, remote sensing and weather data to assess crop water productivity (WP) across large scale. The average paddy field ET for rice for major growing period of June 10 to October 15 is 416 mm, which is 70% of rice potential evapotranspiration (ETp, equals to ET0*Kc). Average rice water productivity is 0.74 kg/m3. The average evapotranspiration (ETa) and WP of wheat is 299 mm and 0.94 kg/m3 respectively. Significant variations were observed for the ETa, yield and WP of rice and wheat. The scope for improvement of water productivity could be assessed by comparing “hot” and “bright” spots in consultation with factors such as rainfall and topography. It is found while improving yield in long term will finally lead to improved WP, reducing non-beneficial ET from low yield areas is a effective approach to improve WP in short term. Integrated land, crop and water management is the key to sustainable development of the region.

We investigated whether the Vietnam War bombing and conflict-induced exodus could have altered the hydrological behaviour of the Mekong Basin. The rainfall-runoff relationship was analysed in 2 catchments over period 1960-2004 (figure 1). In each catchment, rainfall and runoff time series together with potential evapotranspiration were used as input to run GR2M monthly water balance model whose robustness is adapted to data-scarce conditions. The space-time distribution of densities of bombs dropped during the war was derived from UXO-NRA database which records the amount and type of ordnances and the aircraft types and numbers per US Air Force sorties from 1965 to 1973. Bomb-induce damages inflicted on vegetation was estimated using the Bomb Damage Assessment Report. We found that the delivery of about 1.5 million tons of high-explosive ordnances likely caused profound damage to one third of the southern catchment whose runoff increased by gt;365 mm/year during at least 4 years after bombing climaxed in 1972. The magnitude of this increase was found to be consistent with usual tropical forest transpiration rates over the bomb-cleared surface area. No hydrological change was observed during this period in the 30-fold-less bombed catchment located in the North. From 1995 onward, southern and northern catchments’ runoff productions are significantly higher and lower than in pre-war conditions, respectively. These hydrological shifts are most likely attributed to permanent changes in the vegetation cover, either denser in the northern sub-catchment (in response to the extensive abandonment of cultivated lands) or sparser in the southern catchment (as a result of bomb-degraded soil conditions). These results illustrate the high responsiveness of flow regime to forest cover changes in tropical areas where deforestation is expected to perpetuate at a high rate over the coming decades.

The significance of environmental services related with irrigation is increasingly acknowledged as a critical factor for agricultural productivity in South Asia. However, little is known about farmers’ willingness to contribute for the preservation of these services. To this aim, we conduct a stated preference approach for the elicitation of farmers preferences towards the economic value attributed to environmental services related with agricultural water use. The research is based on results from an extensive survey in selected clusters of India, Pakistan and Nepal. The case studies are situated along Indo-Gangetic basins due to the presence of more evident environmental problem linked with irrigation. The findings present a highly agreeable stance of Indian and Nepalese farmers towards the contribution to the environmental services while the majority of Pakistani is opposed to such a contribution. However, they all agree on the type of the assessment approach. The association of the economic assessment with key wealth indicators and socio-demographic elements depicts the high significance of household size.

The authors were asked to answer the question ‘small-scale irrigation: is this the future?’. Taking as a starting point the analyses and of the IWMI-FAO-ADB study on Revitalizing Asia’s Irrigation and its key strategies, the paper compares atomistic irrigation, traditional small-scale and large-scale irrigation options, outcomes and potentials in their socio-economic and river basin environments. Atomistic irrigation has exploded, river basins are closing and energy prices are soaring. This new reality, its benefits, its sustainability crisis, but also the potential for new strategies that this phenomenon has demonstrated must first be acknowledged.; In most countries and river basins, additional development of irrigation at whatever scale is not an option and the focus will be on improving the productivity and sustainability of existing systems. In areas where irrigation development is still possible, options remain open. Demography, market pull, water constraints and energy will largely determine the mix of atomistic, small-scale and large-scale irrigation and their evolution, expansion and decline over time.; The paper explores tactics and strategies for the modernization of existing and the potential for new large-scale systems and for supporting and sustaining atomistic and small-scale irrigation, institutional and policy innovations, and tools to facilitate dynamic planning and management of the sector, the evolution of different systems and the design of measures to support an enabling environment.; A considerable body of knowledge exists on how to support these strategies, transform large-scale irrigation systems and promote various forms of atomistic, small-scale and large-scale irrigation systems. Tools that support long-term sectoral planning and management for future investment and the design of measures to support an enabling environment are proposed. The deployment of sound water accounting and auditing systems will be critical. Planning and policy mechanisms will require looking outside the irrigation sector and this is often where effective interventions will be found.; We need to move from competition and conflict between atomistic, small-scale and large-scale irrigation to a fluid logic of complementarily, combination and convergence. For this to happen, the virtual reality of official agency outlooks, imported frameworks, and descriptions of the sectors and the basins will often need to be reformed, as a preliminary to the reform of the institutions and programmes that embody them. Then, the mobilization of resources from the public sector, the private sector and water users can be greatly enhanced and result in positive outcomes and more sustainable results, and enable new solutions to old problems that have long nagged the sector.; Changing the outlook of the sector and effecting the necessary structural and policy reforms, which are required to change decision-making on future investments in the sector will be difficult. Cap

The vulnerability of surface water sources in the Syrdarya River Basin, due to their transboundary nature and climatic change, raises the importance of the shift from canal irrigation to conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater. However, groundwater development for irrigation may increase salinity of water due to leaching of dissolved solids from the salt-affected vadoze zone and blending of freshwater and saline water. In this paper managed aquifer recharge and discharge are analyzed as a strategy to maintain the groundwater quality of the Sokh aquifer of the Fergana Valley located upstream of the Syrdarya River Basin. Field studies suggested that groundwater recharge from the river floodplain may contribute to maintaining good-quality water in the groundwater system. The modeling study examines groundwater salinity change over a 5-year period under different managed groundwater recharge and discharge scenarios. The modeling results show that adopting water saving technologies and increased groundwater recharge through the river floodplain allows maintaining low groundwater salinity. The studies found that developing groundwater for irrigation increases salinity in the aquifer due to downward saline water fluxes. The results indicate that managed aquifer recharge and discharge contribute to maintaining salinity levels in the vadoze zone and groundwater.

Irrigation has always played a central role in the agrarian economy of Asia, from supporting famed hydraulic civilizations in the ancient past to spearheading Green Revolution in the 1960s and 1970s,. Asia accounts for 70% of the world’s irrigated area and is home to some of the oldest and largest irrigation schemes. While these irrigation schemes played an important role in ensuring food security for billions of people in the past, their current state of affairs leaves much to be desired. The purpose of this paper is analyze the current trends in irrigation in Asia and suggest ways and means for revitalizing irrigation for meeting our future food needs and fuelling agricultural growth. The paper recommends a five pronged approach for revitalizing Asia’s irrigation and provides region specific strategies for the same. The underlying principal of these multiple strategies is the belief that the public institutions at the heart of irrigation management in Asia need to give up comfortable rigidity and engage with individual users’ needs and the demands placed by larger societal changes.

Groundwater is of paramount importance as resource input to smallholder irrigated agriculture in many parts of Asia today, both for securing subsistence farming as well as part of economic livelihood strategies. It is estimated that 1 billion farmers across India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal are reliant on groundwater for their farming. However, despite and in some places because of effective and widespread technologies for accessing and utilizing groundwater, the farmers often encounter constraints in their further development and benefit optimizing of this resource. As part of devising policies and programs that contribute towards sustainable farming systems, integrated land use planning, effective use of water resources, increased food production, and adaptation to global changes in climate, demography, and economic conditions, it is key to understand the realities of farmer interaction with and impediments for utilizing groundwater in these parts of the world. Data and results are presented from action research carried out in the alluvial sedimentary basins of the Indo-Gangetic and Yellow River systems (Fig. 1) as part of a major training and research capacity building effort for groundwater professionals from these five Asian countries. A subsidiary objective to the capacity building aim was to gain insight into and collect key figures and comparative descriptions of the physical, the agricultural, and the household economic conditions for the poor farmers to engage in groundwater irrigation. Major constraints for groundwater use relate to exhaustion of the resource (Yellow River Basin, the North China Plains and western India) and to lack of reliable or affordable energy sources for the pumping of groundwater (eastern India and Bangladesh). Agricultural production levels are relatively low in a global context, particularly in the poorest areas, reflecting other constraints, such as lack of other production inputs and supporting market and service infrastructure. Nowhere is groundwater managed actively and directly, though few examples of local and social schemes for management were encountered. Adaptation or coping strategies of the farmers varied from drilling deeper wells and implementing more efficient pumps in over-exploited areas to substituting expensive diesel fuels with the subsidized cooking oil kerosene in areas with plenty of groundwater but poor energy sources (Table 1). In most places, farmers respond by diversifying crops and livelihood income sources. Migration is also practiced but not always to the effect of relieving further stress on groundwater. General recommendations are provided for addressing the groundwater-related constraints in the diverse landscape of groundwater based economies.

A framework of climate change (CC) analysis is developed using the Decision Support Framework models of the Mekong River Commission (SWAT hydrological, IQQM basin simulation and hydrodynamic iSIS models) to analyze impacts of CC and water resources development on Mekong flow regime. This analysis is based on six model run scenarios defined as combinations of a development scenario, either baseline or 20-year plan and a climate dataset, either observed or from regional downscaling model simulating the past in 1985-2000 or projecting the future climate in 2010-2050. The projected climate shows a slight increase in precipitation throughout the Mekong basin except in the delta. Temperature is projected to increase by 0.023C/year. During the high-flow season, impacts of CC and development are in contrasting directions. The development brings a decrease of about -8 to -17% of river flow but CC increases +2 to +11%. The combined effect causes changes in discharge from +3% to -13% depending on CC scenarios and location of stations. In the low-flow season, both CC and development will increase river flow, with +30 to +60% due to development and +18 to +30% due to CC. The combined effect is up to +40 to +76%. While development reduces the flooded area, CC will make it larger in a wet year. Salinity intrusion area in the delta could be larger in a dry year under CC but development can reduce the affected area. The analysis shows that adaption strategies are needed to achieve the development objectives under CC conditions.

Recently, large-scale surface-water or canal irrigation systems have been termed ‘a sunset industry’ (Rijsberman 2003). Handing over this sunset industry by means of irrigation management transfer (IMT) policies and the creation of water user associations (WUAs) has three main objectives: to increase efficiency, equity, and empowerment. The Uzbek government, together with the international organizations, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI), is currently promoting IMT and the creation of WUAs nationwide. The onset of the policy seemed to be a rational development since the former state and collective farms, which were also responsible for water management on their territories, were disintegrating, and new private farms were emerging rapidly. This study seeks to assess the potential of IMT policies by examining the broader physical, organizational, socio-economic, and political factors that might facilitate or hinder the main objectives of IMT and the creation of WUAs. These factors are addressed and analyzed separately through eight case study chapters that address questions on basin water management, the organizational capacities, and the socio-political dependencies of the district water management departments, the potential for multi-stakeholder platforms (MSPs), the politics of social network structures, and the process of land reforms. The study concludes that none of the external factors is conducive to the introduction of IMT policies and for creating WUAs. The implication is that IMT policies will not increase efficiency, equity, and empowerment, but could even worsen the water management situation. Furthermore, these policies will not increase the empowerment of either the WUAs or their members. Hence, under the current conditions, handing over the ‘sunset industry’ will not lead to a new sunrise for irrigation in Uzbekistan.

This paper explores two examples from the CGIAR Challenge Program on Water and Food research on resilience along the green-to-blue water continuum. A threatened floodplain wetland of the Mekong Basin has been shown to provide many direct and indirect benefits and services that are more resilient and less vulnerable to shocks than externally introduced agricultural systems of various types and intensity occupying the same landwater interface. Multiple-use water systems (MUS) assessed in five large basins show that, wherever water is available, people use water for greater resilience, domestic and productive purposes, including livestock watering, horticulture, irrigation, tree growing or small-scale enterprise.

Recently, the application of excreta-based fertilizers has attracted attention due to the strongly increasing prices of chemically produced fertilizers. Faecal sludge from on-site sanitation systems is rich in nutrients and organic matter, constituents which contribute to replenishing the humus layer and soil nutrient reservoir and to improving soil structure and water-holding capacity. Hence, it represents an important resource for enhancing soil productivity on a sustainable basis. However, there is little in the scientific literature about the performance of treatment technology allowing recovery of nutrient resources from human waste. This paper reviews the state of knowledge of different processes that have been applied worldwide. Their pathogen removal efficiency as well as nutrient and biosolids recovery performances are assessed. The chapter outlines the gaps in research for further development.

In summary, the project findings improved production systems that integrate agriculture, aquaculture, and fisheries in the coastal zones of Bangladesh and Vietnam for enhancing livelihoods in a sustainable manner. To achieve the great impacts of these production systems, the project provided methodologies, decision-support tools for analyzing the interactions among different components, and different spatial and temporal scales to ensure stakeholders’ full participation.

This project aims to identify the risks and benefits associated with the use of wastewater in urban and peri-urban fodder and vegetable cropping systems in India and Pakistan, where wastewater is largely untreated due to lack of public finance. Two mega-cities (Faisalabad, Pakistan and Hyderabad, India, with large untreated wastewater irrigation areas have been selected a) for comparative purposes and b) to develop and promote country-specific risk mitigation options. With a particular focus on food safety, livelihoods and livestock, the research will combine field and laboratory methods and structured interactions with producers, consumers, and authorities (urban planning, public health and water management). The goal of the project is to improve health and safeguard wastewater-dependent livelihoods of resource-poor urban and peri-urban farmers and consumers in developing countries. This overlaps with IWMI’s mission to improve water and land resources management for food, livelihoods and nature. The project’s purpose is to develop and promote the uptake of a set of risk mitigation options based on a comprehensive assessment of risks and benefits associated with wastewater irrigation in Hyderabad (India) and Faisalabad (Pakistan). The project will enable the uptake of the recommendations in two countries with large wastewater-irrigated areas and different political - institutional environments.

This report documents the fourth year and final report of the RUAF-CFF programme in the South and South East Asia region, coordinated by the International Water Management Institute, Hyderabad office, India. It is arranged in three sections: Introduction, activities for the year 2008 and cumulative results of 2005 -2008. The overall content reflects the activates, outcomes and outputs of the four year RAFT-CFF programme.

In the last two decades water has clearly moved from the purview of experts and engineers to a wider forum where stakeholders articulate different claims, values and interests around water management issues. This article takes the example of current debates on water resource development in the Mekong basin and re ects on what are the current challenges, the visions of the future that are in con ict and the skills available. It re ects on the extent to which new practices have been incorporated in water-related decision-making and reviews the implications in terms of skills needed for tomorrow’s water management.

Multi-stakeholder processes (MSPs) and platforms are being used to address various aspects of water management. They have been championed as a way to improve planning and coordination to involve marginalized groups, and to increase learning and uptake of innovations. Between 2005 and 2008, a project called ‘WASPA Asia’ established multi-stakeholder platforms in two cities, Kurunegala in Sri Lanka and Rajshahi in Bangladesh, to address wastewater use in agriculture and its impact on farmers’ livelihoods. This paper presents findings on the benefits and constraints of a particular MSP around a ‘Learning Alliance’. It also describes and analyzes the methodology used to obtain findings and suggests ways in which such a methodology could be used to improve results of MSPs. The paper indicates that the obvious merit of MSPs is in providing spaces for information sharing and awareness-raising. In time, MSPs can evolve to bring about changes in stakeholders’ attitudes and actions but in many cases they are established around short-term projects, which limits their potential for (institutional) change. Given this constraint, attitudinal change and a better understanding of the issues amongst stakeholders are major accomplishments. Analysis of the methodology used for the review shows the benefits of regular joint monitoring, open communication, and the usefulness of relatively simple tools such as ‘change stories’.

The dynamics of artificial recharge of winter surface flows coupled with increased summer groundwater use for irrigation in the Sokh aquifer (Central Asia) have been investigated. Water release patterns from the giant Toktogul reservoir have changed, as priority is now given to hydropower generation in winter in Kyrgyzstan. Winter flows have increased and summer releases have declined, but the Syr Darya River cannot pass these larger winter flows and the excess is diverted to a natural depression, creating a 40 × 109m3 lake. A water balance study of all 18 aquifers feeding the Fergana Valley indicated the feasibility of winter groundwater recharge in storage created by summer abstraction. This modeling study examines the dynamics of the process in one aquifer over a 5-year period, with four scenarios: the current situation; increased groundwater abstraction of around 625 million (M) m3/year; groundwater abstraction with an artificial recharge of 144 Mm3/year, equivalent to the volume available in low flow years in the Sokh River; and with a larger artificial recharge of 268 Mm3/year, corresponding to high flow availability. Summer surface irrigation diversions can be reduced by up to 350 Mm3 and water table levels can be lowered.

Climate change has exacerbated concerns about water security. The authors stress the need for countries in basins where populations are growing to anticipate the water shortage implications for food production. The paper analyses the future status of the interdependence among riparian states in four semi-arid transnational basins under the climate change SRES A2 scenario and projected population growth with a focus on the potential for rainfed agriculture on current croplands and the requirements for irrigation water. Increasing water interdependence among basin states requires institutional preparedness and water sharing arrangements.We conclude that the inclusion of long-term trends in the design of water sharing agreements will improve their robustness to cope with change and mitigate the potential risk of conflict.

Understanding of crop water productivity (WP) over large scale, e.g., river basin, has significant impli-cations for sustainable basin development planning. This paper presents a simplified approach to combine remote sensing, census and weather data to analyze basin rice and wheat WP in In-do-Gangetic River Basin, South Asia. A crop dominance map is synthesized from ground truth data and three existing LULC maps. National statistics on crop area and production information are collected and the yield is interpolated to pixel level using moderate resolution imaging spectroradiometer (MODIS) normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI). Crop evapotranspiration is mapped using simplified surface energy balance (SSEB) model with MODIS land surface temperature products and meteorological data collected from 56 weather stations. The average ET by rice and wheat is 368 mm and 210 mm respectively, accounting for only 69% and 65% of potential ET, and 67% and 338% of rain-fall of the crop growth period measured from Tropical Rainfall Measurement Mission (TRMM). Average WP for rice and wheat is 0.84 and 1.36 kg/m3 respectively. WP variability generally follows the same trend as shown by crop yield disregarding climate and topography changes. Sum of rice-wheat water productivity, however, exhibits different variability leading to better understanding of irrigation water management as wheat heavily relies on irrigation. Causes for variations and scope for improvement are also analyzed.

The overarching goal of this research was to map crop water productivity using satellite sensor data at various spectral, spatial, radiometric, and temporal resolutions involving: (a) Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) 500m, (b) MODIS 250m, (c) Landsat enhanced thematic mapper plus (ETM+) 60m thermal, (d) Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) 23.5 m, and (e) Quickbird 2.44 m data. The spectro-biophysical models were developed using IRS and Quickbird satellite data for wet biomass, dry biomass, leaf area index, and grain yield for 5 crops: (a) cotton, (b) maize, (c) winter wheat, (d) rice, and (e) alfalfa in the Sry Darya basin, Central Asia. Crop-specific productivity maps were developed by applying the best spectro-biophysical models for the respective delineated crop types. Water use maps were produced using simplified surface energy balance (SSEB) model by multiplying evaporative fraction derived from Landsat ETM+ thermal data by potential ET. The water productivity (WP) maps were then derived by dividing the crop productivity maps by water use maps. The results of cotton crop, an overwhelmingly predominant crop in Central Asian Study area, showed that about 55% area had low WP of lt; 0.3 kg/m3, 34% had moderate WP of 0.3-0.4 kg/m3, and only 11% area had high WP gt; 0.4 kg/m3. The trends were similar for other crops. These results indicated that there is highly significant scope to increase WP (to grow quot;more crop per dropquot;) through better water and cropland management practices in the low WP areas, which will substantially enhance food security of the ballooning populations without having to increase: (a) cropland areas, andor (b) irrigation water allocations.

Based on two case studies conducted at local sites in Northern Thailand and Lao PDR, the objectives of this paper are (i) to assess whether conditions for the establishment of PES at the watershed level exist in the uplands of mainland SE Asia and (ii) to examine and discuss limitations that are likely to impinge on direct transfer of the PES concept as well as the institutional adaptations and support that are required for the successful implementation of PES markets in this regional context. The study’s main findings are that: (i) acceptance of PES principles and constraints are directly related to stakeholders’ perception of their land rights irrespective of their actual rights; (ii) willingness to pay (WTP) is very low among local stakeholders, making any PES market unlikely to emerge without external support; (iii) the classical scheme for watershed services hardly applies in its original form because environmental service (ES) providers and buyers are generally the same people; (iv) where potential ES buyers feel that ES providers are better-off or wealthier than them, they do not have any WTP for ES; (v) good governance, including a strong liaising at various levels between people and the authorities is a strong prerequisite for the successful establishment of PES markets, even without direct government funding.

Conflicting demands for food and water, exacerbated by increasing population, increase the risks of food insecurity, poverty and environmental damage in major river systems. Agriculture remains the predominant water user, but the linkage between water, agriculture and livelihoods is more complex than “water scarcity increases poverty”. The response of both agricultural and non-agricultural systems to increased pressure will affect livelihoods. Development will be constrained in closed basins if increased demand for irrigation deprives other users or if existing agricultural use constrains non-agricultural activities and in open basins if agriculture cannot feed an expanding or changing population or if the river system loses capacity due to degradation or over-exploitation.

This paper examines the recent emerging informal Water Users Groups (WUGs) on the Ferghana Valley for managing of the water at the former collective farm level and potential for strengthening of the weak Water Users Associations (WUAs) through replication of WUGs formation. Due to the collapse of the Soviet Union, Central Asian states have introduced reforms in different sectors including the water resources sectors. As a part of the water resources management reforms, Water Users Associations (WUAs) formation has implemented to manage water resources infrastructure and water distribution. WUGs have been emerging because WUAs have not been very efficient and effective due to their top-down implementation approach. In future, WUGs are very effective institutional mechanism of water resources management, and a useful support instrument to WUAs.

Expansion of irrigated agriculture in the Aral Sea Basin in the second half of the twentieth century led to the conversion of vast tracks of virgin land into productive agricultural systems resulting in significant increases in employment opportunities and income generation. The positive effects of the development of irrigated agriculture were replete with serious environmental implications. Excessive use of irrigation water coupled with inadequate drainage systems has caused largescale land degradation and water quality deterioration in downstream parts of the basin, which is fed by two main rivers, the Amu-Darya and Syr-Darya. Recent estimates suggest that more than 50% of irrigated soils are salt-affected and/or waterlogged in Central Asia. Considering the availability of natural and human resources in the Aral Sea Basin as well as the recent research addressing soil and water management, there is cause for cautious optimism. Research-based interventions that have shown significant promise in addressing this impasse include: (1) rehabilitation of abandoned salt-affected lands through halophytic plant species; (2) introduction of 35-day-old early maturing rice varieties to withstand ambient soil and irrigation water salinity; (3) productivity enhancement of high-magnesium soils and water resources through calcium-based soil amendments; (4) use of certain tree species as biological pumps to lower elevated groundwater levels in waterlogged areas; (5) optimal use of fertilizers, particularly those supplying nitrogen, to mitigate the adverse effects of soil and irrigation water salinity; (6) mulching of furrows under saline conditions to reduce evaporation and salinity buildup in the root zone; and (7) establishment of multipurpose tree and shrub species for biomass and renewable energy production. Because of water withdrawals for agriculture from two main transboundary rivers in the Aral Sea Basin, there would be a need for policy level interventions conducive for enhancing interstate cooperation to transform salt-affected soil and saline water resources from an environmental and productivity constraint into an economic asset.

The primary objective of an irrigation organization is to provide efficient and effective management of water resources to achieve enhanced agricultural production. Performance assessment studies provide a tool to evaluate and promote this objective. The study examines the existing planning procedures and assesses irrigation performance of four Water User Associations (WUAs) located in Osh Province, Kyrgyzstan. Performance was evaluated using indicators of adequacy, efficiency, ependability and equity. Indicators were calculated for each irrigation season over the period 2003 to 2007. In general, all WUAs were found to be strong in terms of adequacy and efficiency standards. However, performance with respect to dependability and equity was poor. The results suggest that more effort is needed to improve temporal uniformity and equity in water distribution. In order to achieve this, estimations of irrigation requirements by WUAmanagers needs to be improved and mechanisms eveloped to request water in quantities, which are needed to maintain equity across theWUAoutlets and among water users. The study concludes that the establishment of WUAs in Kyrgyzstan has helped to address the problem of water distribution and allocation among a large number of farmers. However, further training of farmers and managers is required to build their capacity to share water and ensure equity among users particularly during periods of less than optimal water supply. The findings of this research suggest that application of a pre-determined set of indicators can be a useful and cost effective tool to measure the performance of WUAs. This is particularly important for Central Asia where the performance of the recently established and state initiated WUAs to replace former collective farms is now a key element in future sustainable water management. The study identified uncertainties in the estimation of WUA water demands based on previousmethods and suggestsmore attention and care required in calculating water requirements.

Agriculture, a century old practice, has rarely been questioned as it is a necessity for feeding the world’s population. With the increase in food requirement, the sustainability of upland agriculture has posed threats to downstream and coastal areas of river basins. In South Asia, the coastal population depends on the lower part of the river basin for their livelihood such as agriculture and aquaculture. There have been numerous occasions where downstream areas have suffered as a consequence of ad hoc agricultural development activities upstream. Problems encountered in the downstream coastal areas include river desiccation, groundwater depletion, water pollution and sedimentation, salinization and salt water intrusion, soil erosion and nutrient depletion, and dynamic changes in the coastal wetland systems. The objective of this paper is to evaluate current agricultural practices, existing problems, and their implications downstream. This would facilitate the adoption of the river basin approach in managing water resources focusing on the South Asian region.

After the independence of Central Asian countries, many international projects have been launched to promote water users’ inclusion into the water management at different levels. The aim of such projects is to achieve sustainable water management through inclusion of interests of different groups on day-to-day water management. Although IWRM in Central Asia has been already promoted for a decade, there are only a few examples of the implementation in real life situations. The Integrated Water Resources Management in Ferghana Valley (IWRM FV) is a pilot project on implementing integrated water resources management elements at the main canal levels and below. The experience gained from IWRM FV project and lessons learnt could be useful for the national and international organizations for their future work on IWRM implementation at the different regions of Central Asia. IWRM FV project has been active since 2001 in the Ferghana Valley, one of the largest irrigated areas of Central Asia. The project has promoted and implemented participatory irrigation management for three pilot canals. This paper presents the process of implementation and some preliminary outcomes of the IWRM VF project.

Uzbekistan, being historically one of the most populated and agriculture-based republics in the former Soviet Union, still features quite high annual population growth rates and great dependence on agriculture as a backbone for the rest of the economic reforms.With water playing an extremely important role in producing a sufficient food base for the country’s growing population and earning much needed foreign exchange for the government to ensure overall economic development, the pressures on this scarce resource will obviously and inevitably grow, putting it much at risk over a long-term perspective. So would available water be enough to meet ever-increasing demands from major economic uses in the foreseeable future, and what can be the options for meeting such demands these are the key questions raised and researched in this article. As such the research concentrates on the two major country-specific scenarios with water and its multiple uses for Uzbekistan the business as usual and the best case. Both scenarios discuss possible future implications for the next quarter-century given certain assumptions. Finally when summarizing the findings, the paper provides conclusions and recommendations as to how the model and further scenarios can be better optimized given the trans-boundary nature of most water resources in Central Asia where Uzbekistan geographically belongs.

Integrated water resource management (IWRM) is a widely recognized management framework that is currently being adopted throughout post-Soviet Central Asia to inform and guide national water sector reforms, and to keep up with the pace of the faster moving land reforms taking place in the region. With hydrographic principles and public participation being at the core of this framework, the process in the region has started with the reform of on-farm irrigation systems by creating water users associations (WUAs), transferring irrigation management to them and introducing irrigation service fees. This paper draws on the experiences, over four years, of three study WUAs set up in the Ferghana Valley in Uzbekistan, Tajikistan and the Kyrgyz Republic. Aiming to explore the differences in institutional environment and arrangements in these three countries for establishing WUAs, as well as assessing WUA performances (particularly from users’ perspectives), the study reveals that it is not only the newly-established institutional arrangements in the irrigation sector but also their internal operations, coupled with other important factors such as size of area farmed, overall viability of agriculture and a wider economic context that crucially determine overall irrigation performance.

Water is essential for life. World over, there is a growing demand for water resources whether it be for agriculture, industry or domestic use. Population increases adds to this burden, and with nearly half the population projected to live in cities by 2020, competition for water resources is ever increasing. Evidence is also mounting on how this precious commodity will be in short supply in the future, while climate change is influencing its distribution in the most unexpected and unpredictable manner. Given these scenarios, it is prudent and timely to re-look at conservation and re-use strategies of water. Many countries around the world are already using reclaimed water as an alternative source for a wide range of applications, including landscape and agricultural toilet and urinal flushing, industrial processing, wetland restoration and ground water recharge. However, water reclamation and re-use is not without consequences. Human health risks associated with the re-use of recycled water is one of the areas that require closer scrutiny and good planning with guidelines and regulations prior to use. This session looks at the water reuse strategies and associated health risks

During the last decade, the competition for water between the hydropower-oriented upstream and irrigated agriculture-centred downstream in the Syrdarya River basin, Central Asia, has significantly increased. Since 1993, 23 km3 of winter flows from hydropower generation in the upstream have flowed annually into the saline depression of Arnasai located in the midstream. This results in much less water being available for irrigation during summer. Groundwater development modelling conducted for one of the Fergana Valley’s aquifers suggests that temporary storage of winter flows in the aquifer “water banking” could be an effective adaptive strategy to optimize water management in the basin. The study concludes that a shift from canal to groundwater irrigation, combined with winter-flow banking can effectively reduce the upstreamdownstream pressures and ensure improved water supply for downstream water uses during summer time.

Groundwater has played an increasing role in irrigated farming, livelihood support, poverty alleviation, and national food security in India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal since the advent of the green revolution in the 1960s. This paper presents a synthesis of the results of a cross-regional research effort, based on surveys in more than 60 villages, to map the contemporary realities and constraints of groundwater use and adaptation in irrigated agriculture within smallholder farmer communities across the alluvial plains of the major Indus, Ganges and Yellow river basins in Asia. The results show a general over-exploitation of groundwater resources in Pakistan, western India, and China and relative under-utilization in eastern India and Bangladesh. But more interestingly, and despite its great significance, practically nowhere is groundwater managed in an integrated manner. As a result, its use is sub-optimal where smallholders today employ a range of adaptation and coping strategies to uphold groundwater benefits. The research findings point to various axes along which to identify solutions and focus equitable and sustainable policies and management interventions.

Water managers in large cities in developing countries experience great difficulties in providing proper water supply and sanitation services in a context of rapidly growing population with changing water use patterns, structural lack of capacity and resources. There is a need for in-depth city-wise water assessments of fast growing large cities in developing countries to help gain insight into the implications of urban water and sanitation development scenarios on urban water demand, wastewater disposal and downstream water use. The generation of reliable data sets and modeling results for a selection of cities will help understand the present and future impact that water use has on water resources and flows that cross the urban-rural divide. Also, an easy-to use model can support decision making at the local urban water planning and policy level. This paper describes ongoing research on the urban water system in three fast growing cities in the South. The application of integrated urban water management in developing countries is needed for the sustainable management of water resources within the city and basin.

Water resources management is important for the developmental processes of any country, as the demand for water for all forms life and sectors is increasing. Closely linked to water development is health, where water acts as a vehicle for all types of diseases and plays a vital role in sanitation as well. As such, there is a great need for water resources management, to address health safeguards, which are often not looked at, in a holistic manner. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) affords the best practise, for such an effort, as it aims to bring, social, economical and ecological sustainability of resources to communities. Management of water resources in relation to health requires a close collaboration of a number of stakeholders. This session looks at how different countries have looked at health opportunities through water resources management and what needs to be planned for the future in the region.

Rural development debates have largely focused on identifying which natural resource institutions can best contribute to poverty alleviation. We argue that it is equally important to understand under which context a given set of institutions can contribute to reduce poverty. The argument is applied to the case of post-collectivization land reforms in Vietnam. We discuss the role of context in policy shortcomings by analyzing simultaneously the fit between institutions and local contextual factors and the influence of the broader discursive and political-economic context under which policy changes operate.